I
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A HISTORY OF JAPAN
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HISTORY OF JAPAN
BY
HISHO SAITO
TRANSLATED BY
ELIZABETH LEE
LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Ltd
Broadway House, Carter Lane, E.C.
1912
$2-
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.
THE EARLIEST INHABITANTS OF JAPAN. ORIGIN OF
THE JAPANESE. THE OLDEST HISTORICAL SOURCES I
FIRST PERIOD.
FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE TO THE FALL
OF THE SOGA FAMILY . . . - . . .5
PART I.
FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE TO THE SUB-
JECTION of Korea 5
CHAPTER I. — Foundation of the Japanese Empire.
The first Emperor 7
CHAPTER II.— Relations with Korea. Struggles with
the native races. State of civilization . .11
CHAPTER III.— The subjection of Korea . . 16
PART II.
FROM THE INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE CULTURE TO
THE FALL OF THE SOGA FAMILY . . -19
CHAPTER IV.— The introduction of Chinese cul-
ture into Japan. Economic progress of the
nation . . . . . . . .21
CHAPTER V.— The rebellion of Korea . . .24
274771
vi. CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER VI.— The beginnings of Buddhism in
Japan . 26
CHAPTER VII.— The regency of the Crown Prince
Shokotu. Direct Intercourse with China. Further
Introduction of Chinese culture and of Buddhism 30
CHAPTER VIII.— The fall of the Soga Family . 33
SECOND PERIOD.
FROM THE TAIKA REFORMS TO THE FALL OF THE
TAIRA FAMILY -37
PART I.
FROM THE TAIKA REFORMS TO THE FOUNDATION OF
THE CAPITAL, KIOTO . . . . . -37
CHAPTER I.— The Taika reforms . . . .39
CHAPTER II.— The Ainu insurrection. End of
Japanese rule in Korea. Continuation of reform 41
CHAPTER III.— Reforms of the first Taiho year . 44
CHAPTER IV.— The Seven Courts of Nara. Buddh-
ism, Art and Learning . . . . -47
CHAPTER V.— Foundation of the town of Kioto.
The great period of learning and further pro-
gress of Buddhism 51
PART II.
THE AGE OF THE FUJIWARA . . . . -55
CHAPTER VI.— The increasing power of the
Fujiwara 57
CHAPTER VII.— Futile attempts to destroy the
power of the Fujiwara. Art and learning of the
period 59
CONTENTS vii.
PAGE
CHAPTER VIII.— The beginnings of the feudal
system 61
CHAPTER IX.— The Fujiwara family as guardians
of the state. Japanese influence on Chinese
civilization .64
PART III.
THE TAIRA AND MINAMOTO . . . . .69
CHAPTER X. — Abolition of government by guardians
of the Fujiwara Family, and Emperors who
had abdicated. Growing power of the Taira and
Minamoto 71
CHAPTER XI.— Strife in the Imperial Family.
Supremacy of the Taira and Minamoto . -74
CHAPTER XII.— Hostility between the Taira and
Minamoto 76
CHAPTER XIII.— Supremacy and fall of the Taira . 78
THIRD PERIOD.
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE KAMAKURA SHOGUNATE
TO THE END OF THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE
(FEUDAL PERIOD) 83
PART I.
THE KAMAKURA SHOGUNATE ..... 83
CHAPTER I. — Foundation of the Kamakura Shogun-
ate by the Minamoto family. Their supremacy
and their fall through the Hojo family . .85
CHAPTER II.— Establishment of the supremacy
of the Hojo Family. Faineant Shoguns and
Skikken « .89
CHAPTER III.— Repulse of Mongolian attempts at
invasion 91
viii. CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER IV.— Art, learning and religion at the
time of the Kamakura Shogunate . . -93
CHAPTER V.~ Division of the Imperial line.
Abolition of the Shogunate . . . .96
PART II.
RESTORATION, DIVISION AND RECONCILIATION OF THE
IMPERIAL DYNASTY 99
CHAPTER VI.— Reign and fall of Go-Daigo-Tenno 101
CHAPTER VII.— Dynasties of the North and South 104
PART III.
THE MUROMACHI OR ASHIKAGA SHOGUNATE . . 1 07
CHAPTER VIIL— The Muromachi Shogunate . 109
CHAPTER IX.— The disorders of the Onin years
and the struggle for the supremacy of Kamakura 112
CHAPTER X.— The age of Higashiyama. Art,
literature and learning 116
CHAPTER XL— The Heroic Age, (1478-1573) . 118
CHAPTER XII.— Relations with foreign lands . 124
PART IV.
THE ODA AND TOYOTOMI FAMILIES (1573-1598) . . 12 7
CHAPTER XIII.— Oda Nobunaga . . . .129
CHAPTER XIV.— The conquest and union of the
whole Empire by Toyotomi-Hideyoshi . -133
CHAPTER XV.— Toyotomi-Hideyoshi's foreign
enterprises 137
CHAPTER XVI.— The decisive battle between the
Toyotomi and Tokugawa families. Victory of
the Tokugawa family 140
CONTENTS i*.
PAGE
PART V.
THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE 1 43
CHAPTER XVII.— Establishment of the Tokugawa
Shogunate . . 145
CHAPTER XVIII.— Bushido . . . .150
CHAPTER XIX.— Relations with foreign countries 156
CHAPTER XX.— Spread and suppression of Chris-
tianity . . . . . . . .161
CHAPTER XXL— The Reigns of Ieyasu's Successors.
Flourishing state of art and learning. Beginning
of economic progress . . . . .165
CHAPTER XXII.— The most flourishing period of
the Tokugawa Shogunate . . . . .169
CHAPTER XXIIL— End of the great period of
prosperity of the Tokugawa Shogunate . .172
CHAPTER XXIV.— The awakening of a public
opinion. Intellectual tendencies towards the
revival of the Imperial power and the opening
of the country to Europeans . . . .174
CHAPTER XXV.— Conclusion of the first com-
mercial treaty . . . . . . .178
CHAPTER XXVI.— Fall of the Shogunate. Restora-
tion of the Imperial power . . . . 1 84
FOURTH PERIOD.
MEIJI 191
CHAPTER I.— Beginning of the Meiji age . . 193
CHAPTER II. — Reaction against the new system
of government ....... 207
CHAPTER III.— Introduction of constitutional
government . . . . . . .213
x. CONTENTS
rAGE
CHAPTER IV.— Relations of Japan with Russia and
with Korea 218
CHAPTER V.— The Chino-Japanese war . .222
CHAPTER VI.— The revision of the commercial
treaties 230*
CHAPTER VII.— The Chinese troubles . . .232
CHAPTER VIII.— The Russo-Japanese War . . 236
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
i. Japanese Embassy Ship
2. Ainu Family
3. Ainu
4. The Temple of Izumo-no-Oyashiro
5. Suguwara Michizane, Chancellor
of the Right ....
6. Murasaki-Shikibu ....
7. Taira Shigemori ....
8. Battle of the Minamoto and
Taira
9. Minamoto Yoritomo
10. Mongolian Ship Attacked by
Japanese
11. Francesco Xavier, Founder of the
Jesuit Settlements in Japan
12. Oda Nobunaga and his Son
Nobutada
13. toyotomi-hldeyoshi
14. TOKUGAWA lEYASU ....
15. Fortress in Nagoga (Tokugawa
Period) ,,146
1 6. Imperial Official (Kuge) in Court
Dress ,,150
Frontisf,
nece
To face page 1
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7
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59
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66
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79
n
80
n
86
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126
11
J33
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J33
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145
Xll.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
17. Samurai and his Servant — The
Stirrup Cup . .
18. Samurai in Ceremonial Dress
19. Knights Exercising
20. Korean Embassy .
21. Jesuits in Japan .
2 2. tokugawa yoshimune .
23. Samurai at the End of the
Tokugawa Period
To face page 152
155
1S6
162
169
184
Ainu Family
Face p. 1]
A History of Japan
INTRODUCTION.
THE EARLIEST INHABITANTS OF JAPAN. ORIGIN OF
THE JAPANESE. THE OLDEST HISTORICAL SOURCES.
The Japanese are not indigenous to their land. They
first came to their present home at the end of the
bronze or the beginning of the iron age.
Philological research decisively proves that the
people who dwelt in the islands of Japan before the
Japanese were the Ainus. Some attribute a
Mongolian, others, especially European scholars like
Balz and Chamberlain, a Caucasian origin to the
Ainus. At the present time about 17,000 Ainus live
on the island of Ezo. They form a contrast to the
Japanese, for they are powerfully built, exceedingly
hairy, and on a lower level of civilization. It is a
question whether the numerous remains of the stone
age found in almost every part of the Japanese islands
are to be attributed to the ancestors of these Ainus,
or to a people who inhabited the land prior to the
Ainus. Most scholars, especially Professor Koganei,
ascribe them to the Ainus The opposite view, how-
a A HISTORY OF JAPAN
ever, based on important grounds, is held by Professor
Tsuboi of Tokio. He thinks that these ancient
remains point to a people before the Ainus, who were
related to the Eskimos and identical with the
Korpogurus,1 the race of dwarfs that according to the
Ainu legends dwelt in the land before them.
The origin of the Japanese is also much disputed.
It is certain that a race of people related to the
Koreans and Manchurians, who had progressed beyond
the stone age, and used weapons made of metal,
gradually invaded Japan from the continent through
Korea. It is possible that these invaders had some
Ainu blood in them. They clearly possessed marked
Malay elements. Comparative philology divides the
different Mongolian nations into two groups: those
whose language is analytic, and those whose language
is synthetic. The Japanese with the Koreans,
Manchurians, Finns and Turks belong to the latter
group. In any case they stand nearer it than the
Chinese and Tibetans, whose language is analytic.
The two most important sources of information for
the ancient times of Japanese history are the Kojiki, i.e.
chronicle of antiquity, and the Nihonshoki (abbrevi-
ated to Nihongi) i.e. written annals of Japan. The
Kojiki contains merely the genealogy of the imperial
family, without any chronological information. The
Nihongi forms a supplement to the Kojiki; it is
arranged in the form of .annals after the Chinese
model. The handwriting of the Kojiki is Japanese,
1 Literally : people under the Indian plantain.
Ainu
INTRODUCTION 3
while that of the Nihongi is Chinese. The former
was written down in 712 A.D., the latter in 720 A.D.,
and both are by the same author. Even for a later
time, we have only contemporary information to go
on. For since the author, with the exception of
scattered Chinese and Korean sources which he used
for the Nihongi, found his material for the earlier
time solely in tradition, his information about the
very earliest period is most untrustworthy. Both
works, however, have a semi-official character ; they
were composed at the instigation of the Emperor, and
thus caused the author purposely to falsify and
invent in favour of the imperial dynasty.
In the opinion of Professor Yonekichi Miyake
authentic history begins with Suiko-Tenno (33rd
Emperor 592 B.C. — 628 B.C.) and the period of the
26th Emperor Keitai-Tenno (507 B.C. — 531 B.C.) stands
out more clearly from the earlier legendary times, and
may be compared with the dawn. It is not
possible to make any sharp division between history
and legend in those ancient times. Only the follow-
ing facts can with certainty be regarded as historical
for those early years : the unity of the imperial dynasty
from the beginning of the Japanese state; wars
with the savage races already settled in the islands ;
wars with the Koreans and the temporary over-
throw of their country, and as a result, the introduction
of Chinese culture and civilization. But the ancient
traditions of the early period are of sufficient interest
for some account of them to be given here.
FIRST PERIOD
FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE TO
THE FALL OF THE SOGA FAMILY.
PART I
FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE TO
THE SUBJECTION OF KOREA.
The Temple of Izumo-no-oyashiro
Face p. 7]
CHAPTER I
FOUNDATION OF THE JAPANESE EMPIRE.
THE FIRST EMPEROR
ACCORDING to the legend, the Japanese islands were
created by the god Izanagi-no-Mikoto and his wife
Izanami-no-Mikoto. Their daughter, Amaterasu-
Omikami, l the sun goddess, was charitable, virtuous
and clever ; she taught men to cultivate the earth, to
obtain silk and weave it in the loom. Her brother,
Susa-noo-no-Mikoto, in contrast to her, was cruel and
fierce. Therefore he was banished from Heaven to
Izumo, a province on the island of Honto.2 He built
a house there, and married a beautiful girl who bore
him a son named Okuninushi-no-Mikoto. He was
kind, clever and brave ; he defeated all the frontier
tribes and encouraged agriculture. When Amaterasu-
Omikami sent an ambassador to demand the whole
of his kingdom, he obeyed, and at once delivered up
the land. He withdrew to the village of Kizuki in
the province of Izumo and dwelt there till the end
1 i.e. the divinity that shines down from Heaven.
1 The principal island of Japan.
8 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
of his days. There is a large temple, Izumo-no-
oyashiro, in which he is still worshipped as a god.
Amaterasu-Omikami, so the Nihongi relates, caused
her grandson, Ninigi-no-Mikoto, to come down from
heaven and spoke to him in these words : " Go to
Japan where the meadows are green and fertile.
Broad Japan shall be ruled by our descendants to
all eternity, and our posterity shall endure forever
like heaven and earth." She gave him Yada-no-
Kagami, a mirror, Yasakani-no-Magatema, a precious
stone, and Murakumo-no-Tsurugi, a sword with the
words : " These insignia shall be symbols of the
Imperial power, and the worthy palladia of our
Empire. The mirror, especially, shall remind you
of me."
Ninigi-no-Mikoto took the insignia and accom-
panied by many gods came down from Heaven to
Hiuga, a province on the island of Kiusiu, and ruled
there. After Ninigi-no-Mikoto came in succession :
his son Hikohohodemi-no-Mikoto, his grandson
Ugayafukiaezu-no-Mikoto and his great-grandson
Jimmu-Tenna,1 Jimmu-Tenno is the actual founder
of the Japanese Empire.
The Emperor Jimmu lived in the province of
Hiuga on the island of Kiusiu. One day he
gathered together his family and his faithful adherents
and said to them : * Many traitors and evil-doers live
^enno is a Chinese word, Ten=heaven, 0=king; other
epithets for the Japanese Emperor are e.g. Tenshi=son of
heaven and Mikado (Mi=sublime, Kado gate, portal).
FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE 9
in the east, and they oppress, rob, and plunder our
good people. Therefore we must conquer them, and
protect the good people." And he set out to do
so with a powerful army and with his whole family.
They went through the straits of Hayasui, and the
inland sea of Seto to Naniwa ' and landed there, in
order to pursue their march into the province of
Yamato, which Nagasunehiko, the leader of the
rebellion, was plundering. When Nagasunehiko
heard of the approach of Jimmu-Tenno, he marched
out to meet him, and a battle ensued on the mountain
of Ikoma. In spite of great courage, the imperial
army was defeated by the enemy.
The Emperor's eldest brother was mortally
wounded and soon died. Jimmu-Tenno therefore
abandoned the plan of reaching Yamato by land,
marched back to Naniwa, and took ship to Kii, the
nearest province on the sea coast to Yamato.
He landed there on the shores of Kuma-no-Ura.
Michinoomi-no-Mikoto, a native of the place who
was a faithful servant of the Emperor, showed him
the way across the mountains thought to be im-
passable. The imperial army conquered and
brought into subjection all the rebels met on the
way. When they reached Yamato, Nagasunehiko
was murdered by his brother-in-law, Nigihayahi-no-
Mikoto, a relative of the Emperor, who then put
himself at the head of the army, and delivered it and
the province of Yamato to the Emperor Jimmu.
^ow Osaka.
io A HISTORY OF JAPAN
The neighbouring people of Tsuchikumo1 were also
soon brought into subjection.
After the defeat of his enemies, Jimmu-Tenno built
a large palace at the foot of the mountain Unebi, and
ascended the throne, nth February, 660 B.C.
Such is the legendary account of the origin of the
Imperial dynasty, and the foundation of the Japanese
Empire by Jimmu-Tenno. Jimmu's personality is
equally legendary. But it is certain that from the
earliest times about which we possess any historical
information until the present day, only one dynasty
has ruled over Japan, and that the Japanese Imperial
family3 is regarded as the oldest of all reigning
families.
Japanese chronology begins with nth February, 660
B.C.,3 the day of Jimmu-Tenno's accession.
1 Tsuchi— earth, Kumo Spider. They were so named
because they lived in caves.
9 Through the great importance attached to the family in
Japan, family tradition plays a prominent part. An interrup-
tion of the Imperial dynasty would have been an event of
such importance that not even the vaguest tradition could
have ignored it.
8 The late Professor Naka believes that this date of the
Nihongi should be put back about 660 years.
CHAPTER II
RELATIONS WITH KOREA. STRUGGLES WITH THE
NATIVE RACES. STATE OF CIVILIZATION
Our sources give no information for the next 560
years worthy of mention here. We find nothing of
interest until the reign of the 10th Emperor Sujin
(97-30 B.C.).
Under Sujin-Tenno the Japanese government
entered into relations with Korea. The state of
Karak (Mimana)1 in the south-east of the peninsula,
so the narrative runs, was oppressed by the Korean
state Sil-la (Shiraki), and asked help of Sujin-Tenno.
In 33 B.C. he sent a small army to its aid under Shiono-
ritsuhiko-no-Mikoto who was victorious over Sil-la.
The army remained in Karak, and Japan soon
regarded it as a right to keep an army there
permanently, and to exercise a certain authority over
the state.
Besides, this successful enterprise in a foreign
land, the old chroniclers tell of fierce battles fought in
1 The Korean states are here given their Korean names :
the Japanese names are given in brackets.
12 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
their own land against the native races which had not
been entirely subdued.
In the southern part of the island of Kiusiu in the
province of Osumi, dwelt a race called Kumaso on
account of its barbarity. In the time of the 12th
Emperor Keiko-Tenno (71-130 A.D.) that people
rebelled against the Emperor. Keiko-Tenno at first
put down the rebellion. But it broke out again, and
he sent his son, Prince Yamatota-keru-no-Mikoto to
quell it. He was then only 15 years old. When he
arrived in the province of Osumi in order to do battle
with the insubordinate people, their chief was
arranging a ceremony for consecrating a new palace.
Yamatotakeru-no-Mikoto put on girl's dress, and
mingling with the girls, entered the hall where the
festival was held. He assisted in pouring out the
wine, and was taken for a beautiful waiting-maid.
When the chief was sunk in sleep, the Prince drew
out the sword that he had concealed under his
garments, and stabbed him in the back with the words :
" Know, traitor, that I am the son of Keik5-Tennd,
and am come here to overthrow you." The chief
replied : " I am the bravest man of the west country,
but you are stronger than I am, spare me, and I will
bestow on you the title of honour, Yamatotakeru-no-
Mikoto."1 But the prince preferred to kill him, and
ever after, peace reigned in the land.
Later the east was disturbed by the Ainus.3 The
1 i.e. the bravest man in Japan.
a Or Ezo.
RELATIONS WITH KOREA 13
rising spread as far as the plain of KantS. KeikS-
Tenno again ordered his son Yamatotakeru-no-
Mikoto to put it down. First the prince went to the
temple in the province of Ise in order to pray and to
take with him for his protection the sword belonging
to the imperial insignia. Then he marched along
the shore of the Eastern Sea to Suruga where a part
of the rebels opposed him. As the prince came nearer,
the enemy set fire to the thick prairie grass, in order
to destroy his army. But when the prince was
surrounded by the flames, he mowed the grass near
him with his sword,1 and immediately a high wind
sprang up which blew towards the rebels so that they
perished in the flames. The prince then marched to
the nearest port in the province of Sagami, and with
his army embarked for the opposite province of Kazusa.
On the way a storm arose and his ship was in danger
of sinking. His wife, the princess Tachibanahime,
in great fear, prayed to the god of the sea to still the
waves. But the god caused her to sink into the
water and be drowned because she had doubted his
goodness. Then the sea became calm, and the army
were able to land on the shore of Kazusa. Thence it
continued its march to Mutsu, the chief town of the
Ainus. On its arrival, the rebels submitted to the
victorious general who was now able to set out on his
return. He reached the province of Omi by way of
Kai, Shinano and Owari. There the mountains were
1 From that time the sword was named Kusanagi, i,e,
mowing-sword.
i4 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
infested by robbers, and their capture was the
prince's last deed. For immediately afterwards he
was attacked by an illness to which he shortly suc-
cumbed in the province of Ise. A temple was built
in his honour in the province of Owari, which is
now called Atsuta. The sword he had used in his
last campaign was preserved there.
But these deeds of Keiko-Tenno and Prince
Yamatotakeru-no-Mikoto belong rather to legend
than to authentic history. The one historical fact
that stands out is that for a long period after the
foundation of their empire by the imperial dynasty,
the Japanese had to fight with savage tribes who con-
tinually made fresh attempts to regain the liberty
of which they had been deprived.
Our sources record one reform of the nth
Emperor, Suinin (29 B.C. to 70 A.D.) that has interest
for the history of civilization. Until his reign it was
the custom when a ruler died to bury alive with him
a number of his servants, so that they might wait on
him in the world beyond the grave. Suinin -Tenno
made a strict law forbidding the custom for ever ;
for the future, instead of living men, clay figures
of men, birds and horses were to be placed in the
tomb.
Numerous excavations prove that the custom
assigned by tradition to Suinin-Tenno was known to
antiquity. It was usual also to place in the grave
with the dead man the utensils he used daily, his
jewels and his arms. Those objects form valuable
historical documents for us, since we learn from them
RELATIONS WITH KOREA ijj
the conditions of civilization of the time. Men wore
coats with tight sleeves and breeches, similar to
European dress.1 The materials were hemp or
leather. The neck, chest, hands and loins were
adorned with precious stones such as agates. The
men bound up their hair like women. Great care was
bestowed on the manufacture of arms ; they are
of excellent workmanship ; iron swords, spears, arrow
points and helmets have been found. The bows were
made of wood, but have not been preserved. Great
progress had already been made in the manufacture
of pottery.
1 These clothes were supplanted by Chinese dress, which
later gave way again to Japanese fashions.
CHAPTER III
THE SUBJECTION OF KOREA
ACCORDING to the Nihongi chronicle the Kumaso
rose in rebellion again in the time of Chuai-Tenno,
(192-200 A.D.). The Emperor, accompanied by his
wife, Jingu-Kog5, marched out to subdue them. The
Empress was convinced that the Kumaso were
relying on the aid of the state of Sil-la in Korea, and
wished to conquer that state first, for if it was once
subdued, the Kumaso would soon cease to offer
resistance. But the Emperor refused to follow her
advice, and preferred to punish the rebellious people
first. He could, however, do nothing against them ;
he was wounded in the battle and died soon after.
The Empress concealed his death, and took counsel
with the minister, Takeuchi-no-Sukune, and they
determined to attack Sil-la.
At that time the peninsula of Korea consisted of
four independent states, namely, Sil-la (Shiraki) in the
south-east, Pak-je (Kudara) in the south-west, Ko-gu-
ryu (Koma) in the north, and Karak (Mimana) situated
between Pak-je and Sil-la. The earliest formation of
states in Korea preceded the rise of the Japanese
Empire. It goes back to the Chinese prince Ki-ja
THE SUBJECTION OF KOREA 17
who founded the state of Chosun (Chosen) in the
northern part of the peninsula in 11 20 with the
capital Phyong-Yang (Heijo). There soon arose three
states in the southern portion of the peninsula, namely
Ma-han (Bakan), Chin-han (Shinkan) and Phon-han
(Benkan). The three states together were called the
three Han (Kan).
Chin-han was conquered in 57 B.C. by the province
named Sil-la and was thenceforward called Sil-la.
Ma-han was conquered by Pak-je (18 B.C.) and
received its name from that province, and in the same
way Chosun was subdued by Ko-gu-ryu (37 B.C.) and
was then called after that province. The three states
together are called the Postsan-han (Kan). In the
same way Pyon-chin was conquered by Karak, the
smallest of the states. It is related that Karak put
itself under the authority of Japan in the time of
Sujin-Tenn5.
The Empress Jingu-Kogo assumed man's attire
and with a large army went across the Genkai Sea
and the Japanese Sea to Sil-la. The king of that
state was taken by surprise and surrendered after a
little fighting. He offered eighty ships filled with gold,
silver and silk as tribute, and promised : " I will send
the same number of ships laden with treasure every
year as tribute. As long as the sun rises in the east
and sets in the west, as long as the river Yalu does
not flow up to the mountains from the sea, I will not
omit to pay the tribute." And so the Empress
returned to Japan with great booty. When she
landed in the province of Tsukushi, which is situated
1 8 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
in the north of the island of Kiusiu, she bore a son,
the future Ojin-Tenno (200 A.D.) Very soon after-
wards the King of Pak-je submitted and paid tribute
and the King of Ko-gu-ryu followed suit.
This account in the Nihongi of the campaign of
the Empress Jingii-Kogo in Korea must certainly be
regarded as legendary. But it is stated in Korean
sources that there were at that time many fierce
battles between Japanese and Koreans in which
the Japanese gained the upper hand, and became
rulers of the peninsula. We can therefore draw
conclusions as to the power of the Japanese Empire
and its dynasty at that time.
Japan was able to maintain its authority over
Korea amid many fierce and not always successful
battles, at least in some degree, until 668 A.D.
The conquest of Korea was a very important event
for the Japanese people. Through Korea Japan
came into relations with the highly developed
civilization of China, a circumstance that had im-
portant influence in the evolution of Japanese
civilization.
PART II
FROM THE INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE CULTURE
TO THE FALL OF THE SOGA FAMILY.
CHAPTER IV
THE INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE CULTURE INTO
JAPAN. ECONOMIC PROGRESS OF THE NATION
Chinese writing and literature penetrated into
Japan from Korea.
According to the Nihongi chronicle, the scholars
Achiki and Wani came from PaT?Je7~ Wani brought
with him the Bible of Confucius, called Rongo, and
the poem Senjimon, i.e., the poem of a thousand
letters, and gave it to Ojin-Tenno (201-310 A.D.).
He received the two men kindly and bade them
instruct the crown prince, Uji-no-Wakairatsuko, in
Chinese literature. Later, a Chinaman named Achi-
no-mi, came to Japan with many of his countrymen,
and settled in the provinces of Kawachi and Yamato.
These Chinese and Koreans and their descendants for
many generations were clerks and secretaries in
the service of the Japanese government. The
economic life of Japan made great progress under
Chinese influence. Chinese architecture was adopted
from Korea, and also the production of Saki from
rice. Chinese weavers and tailors soon came into the
land and taught their industries to the Japanese.
22 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Chinese influence doubtless improved the condition
of the Japanese people and made for progress in their
economic life. Tradition points at this period to the
popular and happy reigns of a Nintoku-Tenno and
Yuriaku-Tenno.
The Nihongi relates that the Emperor Ojin pre-
ferred his youngest son, Vji-no-Wakairatsuko to all
his other children and made him crown prince in-
stead of his eldest son, Nintoku. When on the death
of his father, VVakairatsuko prepared to ascend the
throne of his ancestors, his elder brother opposed him
and won the support of the people. Wakairatsuko
who soon saw that he would not be able to establish
his claim, committed suicide. Filled with grief for
his brother's fate, Nintoku-Tenn5 ascended the throne
of his fathers and reigned with wisdom and mercy
(313-399 A.D.). He restored the palace at Naniwa.
When he became acquainted with the poverty of the
people, he had pity on them and exempted them
from the payment of taxes for three years. And so
it happened that the Emperor became poor and could
not repair the walls and roof of his palace. But he
thought only of the welfare of his subjects, and when
the Empress complained of their poverty, replied : " I
feel joy and sorrow with my people, if they become
richer then also shall I become richer."
It is told that the Emperor Yuriaku (457-479 a.d),
sent ambassadors to the south of China, and had
women weavers and tailors brought thence that they
might teach the Japanese their industries. And the
Japanese began to weave brocade and silk damask
INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE CULTURE 23
and to do artistic embroidery. The Empress herself
bred silk-worms as an example for the people. The
Emperor encouraged the immigration of makers of
porcelain, potters, and coiners from Pak-je. The
Japanese proved apt pupils, and Chinese fashions in
architecture and industrial arts made great progress
in the land.
CHAPTER V
THE REBELLION OF KOREA
In the time of the 21st Emperor, Yuriaku, a
Japanese commander in Karak on the peninsula of
Korea, named Kibi-no-Tasa, allied himself with the
King of Sil-la. He was really a vassal of the Japanese
Empire, but he had great power at his command, and
strove after independence. At first the Emperor
wished to proceed there in person and punish the
traitor, but by the request and advice of his
councillors he gave up the plan, and commanded his
general, Ki-no-Oyumi, to undertake the campaign. He
had little success and fell in battle.
During the reign of the 23rd Emperor, Kenzo-
Tenno (485-487 A.D.), Oiwa, the son of the Japanese
general, Ki-no-Oyumi, revolted in Korea. He wished
to make himself king over the three Han, and con-
spired with the King of Ko-gu-ryu. But the army of
the state of Pak-je which remained loyal, attacked
him and compelled him to flee to the north.
Later, under the 26th Emperor, Keitai (507-531
A.D.), the state of Karak revolted when at the wish of
the King of Pak-je, the Chancellor Otomo-no-
THE REBELLION OF KOREA 25
Kanamura agreed to surrender a part of Karak. Soon
after, the King of Sil-la allied himself with a Japanese
Kuni-no-miyatsuko * named Iwai and conquered a
part of Karak. The Emperor commanded his general,
Mononobe-no-Arakahi, to destroy Iwai and then
to subdue Sil-la.
In the time of the 29th Emperor, Kimmei (540-571
A.D.), Sil-la undertook an invasion of Pak-je. Seimei-o,
king of that province, fell in battle. Sil-la's troops
went against Karak, and drove out the Japanese
commander (562 A.D.). The Emperor sent an army
against Sil-la, but it was defeated in a fierce battle.
Karak was now completely subdued by Sil-la, and the
Japanese rule was not again restored there. The
Japanese authority was maintained only in Pak-je
and Ko-gu-ryu.
In spite, however, of all the blood spilled by Japan
in upholding its power in Korea, and the decrease of
that power, the march of civilization induced by the
conquest of that land, continued its steady progress.
It showed itself especially in that the religion pre-
vailing on the continent was introduced into Japan.
We have already mentioned in the introduction that
from about the time of the 26th Emperor, the matter
of our sources becomes more trustworthy, and that
from the reign of Suiko-Tenno, we have real authentic
history. The information about the introduction of
Buddhism into Japan may be regarded as absolutely
trustworthy.
1 Overseer of a province.
CHAPTER VI
THE BEGINNINGS OF BUDDHISM IN JAPAN
THE Japanese, like the Aryan races, in the beginning
worshipped the forces of nature as divine beings, e.g.
the sun as Amaterasu-Omikami, who was regarded as
the mother from whom the imperial family sprang.
Side by side with the worship of the forces of nature
was the worship of ancestors. Ancestor-worship is
closely connected with the important position occupied
by the head of the family among the ancient Japanese.
After his death the father of the family enjoyed divine
honours. Each family regarded its own ancestors as
gods, and all the Japanese worshipped the dead
Emperor and various heroes as gods. Every year a
festival was celebrated in honour of the ancestors. It
was believed that on that day the ancestors came
down into the houses of their descendants and wandered
about among them. The people bathed, and put on
their best garments on that day, kindled lights, placed
food for the ancestors and devoted the day to their
memory.
Buddhism came into successful rivalry with this
ancient Kami-worship, l but the old religious views
1 Kami = ancestors.
BEGINNINGS OF BUDDHISM IN JAPAN 27
were never entirely suppressed. Buddhism indeed
was comparatively tolerant to them. At the present
time the old ancestor-worship is continued in the so-
called Shintoism, which experienced a revival in the
1 8th century on the awakening of imperialist
convictions.
In the time of the Emperor Keita, a Chinese
named Shiba-Tatto brought an image of Buddha
with him, and settled in Japan. But he was not able
to convert any Japanese to his faith.
In 552 A.D., Kimmei-Tenno, the King of Pak-je sent
over the image of Buddha and sacred Buddhist books.
The Emperor asked his two highest officers of state,
O-omi and O-muraji, whether Buddha should be
believed in or not.
Now bitter enmity prevailed between O-omi and
O-muraji, the heads of two rival groups of families.
O-omi (i.e. Great Omi) was chief of the Omi family
to which Soga, Heguri, and Katsuragi belonged.
They were descended from the family of the Takeuchi,
who with the Empress Jingu-Kogo had subdued
Korea. They possessed by inheritance one of the two
offices of chancellor. The two Muraji families, the
Mononobe and Nakatomi possessed the other, and so
they each strove for the chief power in the Empire.
The attitude of the two high officials towards Buddhism
corresponded to the enmity between the two families.
O-omi, named Soga-no-Iname, made this reply to
the Emperor's question : " Buddhism is a sublime
spiritual religion, and therefore all cizilized peoples
accept it." O-Muraji, named Mononobe-no-Okoshi,
28 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
replied on the contrary : " We shall remain true to
our old religion, otherwise the gods will chastise us."
The Emperor delivered the image and the sacred
books to O-omi, and said : " You, only, believe in
him, and leave the people to their old faith." Soga-
no-Iname rejoiced over those words, pulled down
his house and on its site built a temple to Buddha
in which he worshipped him every day.
Soon after the plague broke out, and Mononobe-
no-Okoshi assured the Emperor that it was a
punishment sent by the gods for O-omi's conversion
to the new religion. With the Emperor's permission
he burnt O-omi's temple, and threw the image of
Bhudda into the pond Naniwa in the province of
Yamato. Henceforth the enmity between the two
families was greatly increased ; it was inherited by
their sons and by all the families related to them and
their vassals. The army, also, which gave allegiance
to both families, divided into two parties, and at last
things went so far that Moriya, the son of Mononobe-
no-Okoshi, and Umako, the son of Soga-no-Iname
made war on each other. The Mononobe family was
conquered in a fierce battle, and entirely destroyed
by the Soga family which adhered to Buddhism.
The holding of high office of any O-Muraji was
made impossible for ever by the destruction of the
Mononobe. This happened in the reign of Jomei-
Tenn5 (585-587 A.D.). Religion had not been the
principal cause of the fighting. Peace could not have
lasted long between the two powerful officials, O-omi
and O-Muraji. A decisive battle between them was
BEGINNINGS OF BUDDHISM IN JAPAN 29
inevitable. The religious question which had then
become acute was mingled with the rivalry of the two
high officials. The Soga family who had declared in
favour of the new religion were the conquerors.
Thus Buddhism would be accepted in the official class.
CHAPTER VII
THE REGENCY OF THE CROWN PRINCE SHOKOTU.
DIRECT INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. FURTHER
INTRODUCTION OF CHINESE CULTURE AND
OF BUDDHISM.
After the murder of the Emperor Sushun (587-592
A.D.) by the chancellor, Umako, his sister, Suiko-
Tenno (592-628 A.D.) ascended the throne as first
Empress. The crown prince, later called Shotoku,1
conducted the government for her as regent. He was an
enlightened adherent of Chinese culture. He tried to
promote learning in Japan through alliance with China.
He began to form the administration of home affairs
on the Chinese model. He decreed that the officials
should wear a uniform, which should distinguish
them from the common people, and also mark their
rank, and tried to awake in them a strict consciousness
of duty. The 17 articles dealing with morals issued
by him under the title of " Constitution " were
especially directed to the official class.
1 During his life-time his name was Umayadono-Oji or
Toyoto Mimi. Shotoku-Taishi is his posthumous title of
honour, and means the greatly wise and virtuous crown prince.
REGENCY OF CROWN PRINCE SHOKOTU 31
The introduction of the Chinese calendar was also
due to him.
He sent a Japanese ambassador to the Chinese
Emperor to deliver a letter in which he invited friendly
intercourse between the two nations. The am-
bassador was accompanied by a number of Japanese
students. At that time, 589-617 A.D., the Sui dynasty
was reigning in China. Under it art, learning and
politics made great progress, and reached their zenith
under the Tang dynasty (618-906). As those
Japanese remained in China until that period, all the
great results of Chinese culture were made directly
accessible to Japan. The Emperor of China on his
part sent an ambassador with a reply to the Empress
(607 A.D.). Such was the first official political act
between the two states, although private intercourse
had already prevailed for a long time.
Shotoku-Taishi embraced the Buddhist religion,
and built many temples to Buddha, especially the
Temples of Horiuji1 and Shitennoji, which are
preserved to this day.
Professor C. Ito has devoted a careful study to the
architecture of the temple of Horiuji. He finds the
Indian, Chinese and Greek styles in the building.
The pillars of the outer gate are partly Doric, other
parts, for example the roof, the windows and the
galleries, are Chinese, while the interior is Indian in
style. It is recognised that under Alexander the
Great, Greek culture penetrated to India (327 B.C.),
1 Ji = Buddhist Temple.
32 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
and it must be admitted that Indian art when it was
introduced into China possessed Greek elements.
The Temple of H5riuji offers a rich field for the
history of Japanese art. It contains many statues of
Buddha, some in wax, others in bronze, or carved in
wood. The style is called after the temple, the
Horiuji style, or after its creator, the Tori style. The
walls of the temple are decorated with large portraits
of Buddha. They were painted by the Buddhist
priest, Doncho of Korea, who first introduced painters'
colours, paper and Indian ink into Japan. The
temple also contained embroideries on silk, Buddhist
vessels and Chinese musical instruments which belong
to that period.
CHAPTER VIII
THE FALL OF THE SOGA FAMILY
Chinese civilization soon got a strong hold in the
Japanese islands. The industrial and intellectual life
of the Japanese people already bore its mark, and
Buddhism steadily gained ground. But there was
one fundamental difference between Japan and China,
and that lay in the system of government of
each state. In China an admirable system of
administration had been developed, carried out in an
almost modern fashion by a class of officials who, now,
at the beginning of the brilliant epoch of the Tang
dynasty won universal admiration. In Japan, on the
contrary, the old patriarchal system of government
still prevailed.
It must therefore be pointed out what an important
part the family (Uji) played in the life of the Japanese
nation. The Japanese family stood in intimate relation
with the father of the family. The eldest son inherited
the position of father of the family, and he possessed
the same power over the families of his brothers and
sisters as over his own children. So there was close
interdependence among individual families, and
3
34 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
family dependence and membership was of the
greatest importance. The family which possessed the
greatest number of kinsfolk possessed also the
greatest power in the state. ^The most powerful
families had hereditary rights to the highest offices.
As the Emperor held his power through his birth and
the position of his family, so the chancellors, the
highest officials and the governors of the provinces
held their offices through their birth and their
families.1 They did not owe their offices to the favour
of the Emperor, they inherited them as the property
of their family.
It can be gathered from this how little real power
the Emperor had in the administration of his empire.
The powerful family of the Soga, especially after the
destruction of their rivals, the Mononobe, succeeded
in gaining such a strong position that it could
venture to defy the imperial family and even to
strive after the imperial dignity. The more
oppressively powerful the position of this family
became, the more did the friends and representatives
of the imperial dynasty feel that the government of
the Japanese state must be reformed after the Chinese
model.
The crown prince Shotoku died before he succeeded
to the throne. Shortly after, the chancellor, Soga-no-
1 There were 3 classes of families : 1. The Kobetsu, families
of the imperial race. To those belonged e.g. the Soga.
2. The Shimbetsu, families of the Emperor's vassals. To
those belonged e.g. the Nakatomi. 3. The Hambetsu, the
families of Chinese and Korean immigrants.
THE FALL OF THE SOGA FAMILY 35
Umako, who had been a champion of Buddhism also
died. His son, Emishi, inherited his office. He
arrogated to himself more independence than his
father had had, and appointed his son Iruka to sit in
office with him without the Emperor's permission.
Iruka was cruel, and more arrogant and overbearing
than his father. He designated his son by the title of
prince and called his house the imperial court. At last
he set aside the sons of the crown prince Shotoku with
their families, and thought thereby to destroy the
imperial dynasty for ever.
But there was a noble at the imperial court, by
name Nakatomi-no-Kamatari, who was faithful to
the imperial family and sought to bring about
the downfall of the Soga family. For that purpose .
he took counsel with the wise prince, Naka- $
no-oe-Oji, and they decided on the murder of the
arrogant chancellor. It was not merely an act of
vengeance, a great political idea was allied with it : to
administer the government of the Japanese Empire
on the Chinese pattern. Both had studied the Chinese
form of government, and had long had it in mind to
introduce into Japan a number of ministers and
officials as was the case in China. To carry out the
plan, it was first necessary to destroy the Soga family.
During the festival at which the Korean
ambassadors offered tribute to Kogioku-Tenn6 (642-
645 A.D.), they murdered the Chancellor Iruka at the
feet of the Empress, and had his palace surrounded
by their faithful adherents. Emishi, surprised, burnt
all the treasures and documents of the state, among
36 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
them the oldest historical works of Japan.1 Then he,
together with the remaining members of his family,
sought death in the flames (645 A.D.).
With the fall of the Soga family the last obstacle to
the complete adoption of Chinese civilisation was
removed. The government of the Japanese empire
could now be modelled on the Chinese plan, and in
place of the old patriarchal government arose a much
more modern system.
1 The Tenno-ki and the Koku-ki which were written before the
Nihongi in 720. The Kuji-ki which was long regarded as a part
of the Koku-ki that had been preserved, is a later forgery.
SECOND PERIOD
FROM THE TAIKA REFORMS TO THE FALL OF
THE TAIRA FAMILY.
PART I
FROM THE TAIKA REFORMS TO THE FOUNDA-
TION OF THE CAPITAL, KIOTO.
CHAPTER I
THE TAIKA REFORMS
SOON after the violent end of the arrogant Chancellor
and his family, the Empress abdicated in favour of
her brother, who ascended the throne as Kotoku-
Tenno (645-654 A.D.J. He immediately gave the
chief authors of the great revolution, Prince Naka-
no-oe-Oji and Nakatomi-no-Kamatori, an important
part in the management of the administration. He
also appointed as his advisers Takamuko-no-
Kuromaro and Sobin, two men who had lived in
China for a long time and were intimately acquainted
with Chinese literature, and especially with the
political administrative conditions of that country;
with their aid he began to reform the government
and administration of his Empire according to the
Chinese model. The great significance of the reform
received outward expression by the introduction of
the Chinese custom of giving a name to the years,
and so those years were called Taika, i.e. great
reformation.
Instead of the high officers of state who owed their
dignities to family descent, officials were now
40 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
appointed whose posts were not hereditary. The great
plenipotentiaries in the provinces were set aside, and
replaced by governors who were immediately de-
pendent on the crown, and were changed every four
years, so that they might not seek after independent
power. Every province was declared to be the
property of the Emperor, and all inhabitants the
subjects of the crown ; they had no longer to pay the
taxes to the governor of the province, but direct to.
the state itself. The officials, unlike the former
plenipotentiaries, received a salary. According to a
census taken at that time, every man received two
Tan ' of rice-fields, and every woman two-thirds
of a Tan. On the death of the owner the land was
to go back to the government. Every man had to
pay a fixed annual tribute of rice, each family an
annual tax of part of the produce of their land
according to its extent, e.g. fruit, silk, or fish. Every
man between 20 and 50 years of age was obliged to
work 10 days in each year for the government, but
he could get exemption from that duty by paying in
kind. The Emperor made roads and kept post
horses in the towns and villages in order to facilitate
communication with the provinces, and to preserve
better control over the administration.
1 A Tan = about 1200 square yards of land.
CHAPTER II
THE AINU INSURRECTION. END OF JAPANESE RULE
IN KOREA. CONTINUATION OF REFORM
After the death of Kotoku-Tenno, his sister,
Kogioku-Tenno, ascended the throne for the second
time under the name of Saimei-Tenno (655-661 A.D.).
The crown prince Naka-no-oe-Oji assisted her in the
execution of her duties without assuming the imperial
dignity.
At that time there was an insurrection of the Ainus.
The Empress commissioned the general, Abe-no-
Hirafu to put it down, and he succeeded in accom-
plishing the difficult task. The Mishihase or
Makkatsu who also rebelled soon after were subdued
by him. But the government were not able to cope
with the disturbance in Korea which through the en-
croachment of China now entered on a new phase.
For the last hundred years there had been con-
tinual fighting between the states of the peninsula of
Korea. As related above, Sil-la had fallen off from
Japan, and submitted to the province of Karak. Only
Pak-je and Ko-gu-ryu recognised the authority of
Japan. When at this time Sil-la again fought with
42 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Pak-je, it asked help of the imperial dynasty, Tang, in
China. Chinese troops joined with the army of Sil-la
and invaded Pak-je. The auxiliary troops sent by
Japan defeated the Chinese army after severe righting.
Saimei-Tenno died at that. time, and the crown prince,
Naka-no-oe-Oji ascended the throne as Tenji-Tenno
(668-671 A.D.). As the Chinese now succeeded in
subduing Ko-gu-ryu, and so bringing the whole of the
peninsula under their rule, Tenji-Tenno gave up re-
sistance. Sil-la gained all the conquered territory, but
was compelled to recognise Chinese supremacy (66$
A.D.). So ended Japanese rule in Korea. It had
cost Japan much blood without bringing any lasting
political advantage. Its chief importance lies in its
influence on civilization.
Tenji-Tenno made the town of Shiga on the banks
of the lake of Biwa in the province of Omi his place
of residence. With exceeding energy he continued
the task of reforming domestic administration. He
founded schools, and enacted that a census of the
people should be taken regularly every five years, and
made many other laws and decrees. On that account
he was called the " Restorer."
Under Tenji-Tenno, Nakatomino-Kamatari, the
man who had played so important a part in the
destruction of the Soga and in the new reforms, en-
joyed great honour. He was Tenji-TennS's right hand
and confidential minister. When he was dangerously
ill, the Emperor visited him at his own house, and
bestowed on him the title of Taishokukan, which
signified great distinction, and the family name of
THE AINU INSURRECTION 43
Fujiwara. After Kamatari's death the temple of
T<5-no-mine was built in his honour, in which, even
to-day, divine honours are paid him. Hence came
the rise of the Fujiwara family which later played so
important a part.
Tenji-Tenno was succeeded by his son K$bun-
TennS (672 A.D.). But after three months he was
attacked by Prince Oama, Tenji-Tenno's brother, a
personal enemy of Tenji-Tenno, at the head of a large
army, and therefore committed suicide. Oama as-
cended the throne under the title of Temmu-Tenno
(672-686 A.D.). Although hitherto hostile to Tenji-
TennS he accepted his reforms, and to some extent
carried them further.
CHAPTER III
REFORMS OF THE FIRST TAIHO YEAR
A SECOND epoch of reform was inaugurated by the
reign of the 42nd Emperor, Mommu (696-707 A.D.),
the grandson of Temmu-Tenno. Under his rule,
Prince Osakabe and the minister, Fujiwara Fubito,
son of the famous minister, Kamatari, in the first
Taiho year added a number of laws and decrees after
the Chinese model to the reforms of Koto-ku-Kuno
and Tenji-Tenno (701 A.D.), reforms which, except for
slight changes, remained valid until modern times.
According to this new arrangement the two Kan,
Jingikan and Dajokan formed the central points of
the government. The care of the ancient religious
belief and ancestor-worship was entrusted to the
Jingikan. The Dajokan consisted of a group of three
persons, namely, the Chief Chancellor (Dajodaijin) the
Chancellor of the Left (Sadajin^), and the Chancellor
of the Right (Udaijin). They were assisted by eight
ministers, viz., Nakatsukasa, the chief minister, whose
duty was to write down and proclaim all the edicts of
the Emperor ; Shikibu, who was master of the cere-
monies and minister of public worship and instruction ;
REFORMS OF THE FIRST TAIHO YEARS 45
Jibu, overseer of the officials working in the provinces ;
Minbu, minister of commerce and agriculture ; Hi5bu,
minister of war ; Kiobu, minister of justice ; Okura,
minister of finance; and Kunai, minister of buildings
and works in the imperial palace. The Dajokan were
also assisted by the Dainagon,1 who lived in close
attendance on the Emperor as advisers and monitors ;
and the Dainagon were again assisted by the Shon-
agon.9 Later on the Dainagon succeeded in making
their close relations with the Emperor of great im-
portance. Together with the Chunagon,8 they formed
a council called Sangi.
The capital was divided into two districts. The
Ki5shiki stood at the head of each of those districts,
and the Kokuji at the head of the provinces, below
them came the Gunji. Those officials, as stated above,
were changed every four years. The province of
Tsukushi, in the north of the island of Kiusiu which
was of especial importance for the defence of the
frontier against China and Korea, was administered
by a council, " Dazaifu," which besides the duties of
a prefect had also military powers for the purpose of
securing the safety of the frontier. The province of
Settsu with the important port of Naniwa fnow
Osaka) was administered by a Settsu-shiki which also
had to look after the building of ships and the carry-
ing on of trade.
1 Dai = great, Nagon = monitor.
9 Sho = small.
8 Chu = middle.
46 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
There was a university in the capital and a school
in each province. The imperial guard was quartered
in the capital and an army corps was kept in each
province.
The criminal code contained five different penalties :
flogging with the whip ; flogging with the stick ;
banishment to another province ; banishment to a
distant island ; and death.
The carrying out of these reforms on the Chinese
model cut so deeply into the old conditions of
government that an admirable modern state was
created out of the old patriarchal form of government.
The great political progress, the formation of a
complicated official system and the relations into
which the state had entered with China, demanded a
permanent seat of government which had hitherto
been lacking. It had been the custom to change the
seat of government with almost every new sovereign.
But there was soon to be an end of that system.
CHAPTER IV
THE SEVEN COURTS OF NARA. BUDDHISM, ART
AND LEARNING.
Mommu-Tenno left a son who was a minor, and so
his mother ascended the throne in his place under the
name of Gemmi5-Tenno (707-715 A.D.). She built a
palace in the Chinese style at Nara, and placed the
seat of government there, and seven Emperors resided
there one after the other : Gemmio, Gensho
(715-724 A.D.), Shomu (724-749), Koken (749"758),
Junnin (758-764), ShStoku (764-769), and Konin
(769-781 A.D.). This period of the history of Japan
is called "the seven courts of Nara," a time when
Chinese influence held full sway.
Gemmio-Tenno was the first to introduce bronze
coinage into Japan, and as in China, each coin had a
square hole in the middle.
To her also we owe the earliest source of Japanese
history that has come down to us. She ordered the
Kojiki to be written down by a nobleman at the
court, named O-no-Yasumaro, and it was finished in
722. It covers the period from the beginning of
Japanese history to the time of the Empress Suiko
(592-628 A.D.). It was based on the oral statements
48 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
of Hieda-no-Ares, an imperial vassal who owed his
information to Temmu-Tenno. By her order, also, a
topographical description of the provinces, called
Fudoki, was made. During the reign of the next
Empress, Gensh5-Tenno, O-no-Yasumaro, at the
invitation of Prince Toneri, wrote the annals called
Nihon Shoki, which are based on Chinese sources and
cover the period from the origin of the Japanese
Empire to Jid5-Tenno (690-696 A.D.).
Chinese influence, which entirely prevailed at this
era, greatly furthered the spread of Buddhism. Shomu-
Tenno, (724-749 A.D.), the successor of Gensho-Tenno,
and also his wife, Komio-kogo, the daughter of the
minister, Fubito, and so the first Empress not of im-
perial descent, were ardent adherents of the new
religion. The Buddhist priesthood now began to
appear at court. The Emperor regarded himself as a
Buddhist monk, and called himself a servant of
Buddha, a servant of the Buddhist priests and of the
Buddhist doctrine. The Empress, from a sense of
piety, founded a workhouse and a hospital. The
Emperor built many Buddhist temples in Nara, and
ordered two temples to be erected in each province,
one for priests, and the other for priestesses.
The Buddhist priests, whose number increased with
extraordinary rapidity, soon acquired great secular
power. Many of them wholly abandoned their
religious ideals, and gave themselves up to worldly
interests. One of them named Dokio became the
favourite of the Empress Koken, and succeeded in
attaining great power at court. If he did not actually
THE SEVEN COURTS OF NARA 49
possess the title of Chief Chancellor, he was the
real leader of the government. His ambition even
soared as high as the imperial dignity itself. Wake-
no-Kiyomaro, who warned the Empress of the priest's
plans, was banished from the court for his information,
and only after the death of the Empress was Dokid
exiled for life to the province of Shimozuke by her
successor.
The most important of the Buddhist temples of that
time was Todaiji in Nara. It is famous for its
enormous gold and bronze bust of Buddha, over 48
feet high, called Nara-no-Daibutsu. There only
remains of the ancient temple a subsidiary building
called Shosoin in which were preserved a number
ofN^ld paintings, woven stuffs, silk embroideries,
musical instruments, gold, silver and ivory vessels and
cups belonging to the imperial family. The objects
prove the height to which art had risen at that time.
The style of the art of the period is called the Tempio
style after the name of the years in which it flourished
Distinguished scholars and authors belong also to
that epoch. We may mention here Abe-no-Nakamaro
and Kibi-no-Makibi, who had lived a long time in
China, and were acquainted with Chinese writers like
Rihaku and Toho. Nakamaro, at the request of
the Emperor of China, remained in China till his
death. Kibi-no-Makibi returned to Japan after 19
years absence, and became tutor to the Empress
Koken, the daughter of Shomu-Tenn5 and later
Chancellor of the Right. He invented the Japanese
syllabic writing, consisting of 50 letters arranged in
4
5o A HISTORY OF JAPAN
tabular form, known as the Katakana.1 The form is
essentially influenced by the Sanskrit. Celebrated
song- writers were Kakino-moto-no-Hitomaro and
Yamabe-no-Akahito, etc. The most important
collection of songs of that epoch is the Mannioshu.
1 Kata = the halves, i.e. Makibi used halves of Chinese signs
for representing the Japanese syllables. Kana = equivalent
names.
CHAPTER V
FOUNDATION OF THE TOWN OF KIOTO. THE GREAT
PERIOD OF LEARNING, AND FURTHER PROGRESS OF
BUDDHISM.
The 50th Emperor Kammu (781-806 A.D.), the
successor of KSnin, was not satisfied with Nara as
a place of residence. He laid out a large, regular,
modern city on the plan of Chang-an, the capital
of the Chinese Empire and named it Heiankio, i.e.,
the town of peace. Later on it was named only
Kioto, i.e., Metropolis. It continued to be the residence
of the Emperor until 1869.
From the time of Gemmio-Tenno, the Ainu tribes
had been in a continual state of rebellion. All at-
tempts to subdue them permanently had failed.
Kammu-Tenn5 now sent the famous General Saka-
none-no-Tamuramaro against them. He was a severe
but just and well-meaning man. The strictest discip-
line prevailed in his army which was entirely devoted
to him. After a long struggle he succeeded in
subduing the Ainus for ever.
Shortly after the death of Kammu-Tenno disputes
arose about the succession. Heijei-Tenno, who suc-
ceeded him (806-809), soon abdicated, and his brother
52 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Saga-Tenno (809-823) ascended the throne. But
Kusuko the favourite wife of Heijei-Tenn5 quarrelled
with Saga-Tenno. She and her brother were the
leaders of a conspiracy, the aim of which was to thrust
Saga-Tenn5 from the throne, and to restore Heijei-
Tenno. The conspiracy was discovered. Kusuko
committed suicide, and her brother was executed.
In order to prevent such events in the future,
the Emperor instituted a guard of police for the
capital, and placed a body-guard about his own
person, the Kebiishi.
This Emperor erected a building called Kurododo-
koro for the preservation of documents of state. He
revised the laws and ordinances of the Taihorio.
He was a very learned man and practised the
rare and highly esteemed art of writing.1 He
was also the author of valuable works ; he encouraged
learning and the arts, and they made great progress
in his reign.
Besides the university in the capital, and the schools
in the provinces, there were many private schools for
the nobility, e.g., the school Gakkanin for the Tachi-
bana family, Kangakuin for the Fujiwara family,
Shogakuin for the imperial family. Among the
celebrated scholars of the time Miyako-no-Yoshika,
Omi-no-Mifune and Ono-no-Takamura deserve
mention.
1 Besides the Emperor there were at that time only two men
who could write, Kukai and Tachiba-na-no-Hayanari, whose
writing was for a long time typical. The three men were
called Sampitsu (Sam = three, Hitsu or Pitsu = caligraphers).
FOUNDATION OF THE TOWN OF KIOTO 53
Saicho and Kukai were the most distinguished of
the Buddhist priests. Saicho was with the Japanese
embassy to China for about a year, and on his return
introduced into Japan the teaching of the Tendai, a
sect widely spread through China which strove to
raise the position of the priesthood both spiritually
and morally. After his death he received the title
of Dengio-Daishi. The temple built by him on the
hill of Hiei was the principal temple of his sect.
Kukai also went to China. On his return to Japan
he spread the teaching of the Shingonshu,1 and built
a temple on the summit of the hill Koya called Kon-
gobuji. Both men were distinguished for their wide
culture and learning. Among other things Kukai im-
proved the Japanese syllabic writing and arranged
it in alphabetical form. Kukai's 47 letters are called
Hirakana. After his death he received the title of
honour, Kobo Daishi.
The spread of Buddhism in Japan was greatly pro-
moted by these two men, and especially through their
toleration. They tried to reconcile Buddhism with
the old Japanese faith in gods, and in ancestor-worship.
They did not desire that the ancient faith should be
discarded, and were content that Buddha should be
worshipped side by side with the old gods, as an
equally privileged god. And so it often happened
at that period that a temple of the old Kami worship
was joined to a Buddhist temple. The imperial court
where many converts were made to Buddhism cele-
brated a Buddhist service.
1 Shu = Sect.
PART II
THE AGE OF THE FUJIWARA
CHAPTER VI
THE INCREASING POWER OF THE FUJIWARA
The leading idea in the political reforms of the
Taika years had been to secure the Emperor powerful
influence through the right of appointing and dis-
missing officials. But in spite of the fact that these
reforms greatly changed the ancient procedure,
hereditary and family rights and privileges played
so large a part in Japan, that new independent power
arose. High officials succeeded in securing their
posts to members of their family ; in fact appointment
to office was not made for personal qualifications but
on account of family descent. Thus the family of
Nakatomi-no-Kamatari on whom Tenji-Tenno had
bestowed the title of honour of Fujiwara, attained to
very great power, and its members were continually
appointed to the highest offices, and the proceeding
caused many disputes and disturbances in the imperial
family. Yoshifusa, the daughter of the minister
Fujiwara, was the wife of Prince Michiyasu1 and
became Empress at his accession, a fact of great
importance to the Fujiwara family. Through this con -
1 After his accession he was called Montoku-Tenno.
58 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
nection with the imperial family, the Fujiwara secured
the precedence of all the rest of the rival families.
For future Emperors would be of their blood.
The son of the Empress belonging to the Fujiwara,
was only 9 years old when, as Seiwa-Tenno (858-876)
he ascended the throne. Therefore his grandfather,
Fujiwara Yoshifusa, was appointed his guardian.
Later on when a more youthful Emperor, Yozei-
TennS ascended the throne, Mototsune, an adopted
son of Fujiwara Yoshifusa, was appointed guardian.
As Yozei-TennS had feeble health and was incapable
of governing, Fujiwara Mototsune remained guardian
when the Emperor was grown up. Mototsune
greatly distinguished himself during his regency, and
became so powerful that he deposed Yozei-Tenno,
and set Koko-Tenno (884-887) on the throne, who,
being Emperor only in name, left all power and
authority to Mototsune. After 5 years Koko-Tenno
abdicated in favour of his son, Uda-Tenno (887-897).
Although he was 28 years of age, Mototsune assumed
the office of guardian, for so far had it come that
even an Emperor who was of age had to acknowledge
an officially recognised guardian from the all-power-
ful minister's family. Such a guardian for an adult
Emperor held the title of Kambaku.
SUGAWARA MlCHIZANE
Chancellor of the Right
CHAPTER VII
FUTILE ATTEMPTS TO DESTROY THE POWER OF THE
FUJIWARA. ART AND LEARNING OF THE PERIOD
IT was natural that an Emperor, conscious in some
degree of his own powers, should dislike such a
guardianship, and so Uda-Tenno made an attempt
to destroy the supremacy of the Fujiwara. When
his Kambaku, Mototsune, died, he refused to recog-
nise the new guardian appointed by the Fujiwara.
Moreover, he sought to set up in power and esteem
another family, the Sugawara, as rivals to the
Fujiwara, and he appointed Michizane, a clever
member of the Sugawara, Chancellor of the Right.
But Uda-Tenno was not the man wholly to carry
out his great political ideas for, devoted to Buddhism
with his whole soul, he abdicated in favour of his
twelve year old son, shaved his head, and became a
Buddhist monk. He arranged that no Fujiwara should
receive the office of guardian to the boy Emperor,
Daigo-Tenno (897-930 A.D.), and out of hatred to
them he offered Michizane the post of guardian
to the young Emperor. But the power of the
Fujiwara was still exceedingly great, and Michizane
60 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
refused the invitation from fear of them. Mototsune's
son, Fujiwara Tokihira, who was Chancellor of the
Left, gained so great an influence over the young
Emperor that he succeeded in slandering Michizane
to him and procuring his banishment. Michizane
died in exile.
When Daigo-Tenno was grown up, he ruled with
wisdom and mercy. His reign lasted 33 years and
was prosperous and happy. Poetry and science
flourished, and the scholars and writers, Sugawara
Michizane, Miyoshi Kiyoyuki and Kino Haseo, who
had all had a Chinese education deserve mention.
Kino Tsurayuki and OshikSchi Mitsune were dis-
tinguished song-writers ; Kino Tsurayuki wrote
Japanese prose in his descriptions of travel. At the
command of Daigo-Tenno they both collected
Japanese songs ; their comprehensive collection fills
20 volumes and is the first made with imperial co-
operation.
There was also at this time a celebrated painter,
named Kose Kanaoka.
CHAPTER VIII
THE BEGINNINGS OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
The founding of a fixed place of residence, and the
increase of prosperity resulted in more luxurious
ways at court. The nobles and their families who
lived at Ki5to vied with each other in the display of
splendour and luxury. Many families who hitherto
had held a high position lost their wealth through
their extravagant way of life. On the other hand
the Fujiwara, through their alliance with the imperial
family, attained greater power than ever. Their
supremacy was so oppressive to the other families
that they preferred to leave Kioto and settle in the
country. The Fujiwara family who now held sway
alone in the capital, led a life of magnificence and
luxury. In the administration of the land they no
longer considered the welfare of the state, but
thought of their own advantage, especially of obtain-
ing means for their luxurious way of life. They
granted privileges to the officials and nobility in the
provinces in return for others granted to themselves.
The ordinances of the great Reform era were set
aside, and official posts became hereditary. Thus
62 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
the territorial nobility again became powerful, they
gained extensive landed property, forced the peasants
to serve them, and so were in a position to raise
troops and command great military power.
This military and feudal nobility now beginning to
make itself felt in the country, was later called Buke,
to distinguish it from the court nobility which was
called Kuge.
The development of feudalism and of the power
of the nobility was closely associated with numerous
internal struggles.
In the time of Suzaku-Tenno (930-946 A.D.), Taira
Masakado, a descendant of Kammu-Tenno, asked
the minister Fujiwara Tadahira to appoint him
Colonel of the Police (Kebushi). When Fujiwara
refused, he went back to his native province of
Shimosa which lay to the east, collected troops,
attacked the neighbouring province of Hidachi,
and murdered the prefect who was his uncle.
The central power was not strong enough to put
down the rebel, who later marched through the
country plundering as he went. In 939 A.D. he even
built a fortress in the village of Sashiura, in the
province of Shimosa, and ruled there like an in-
dependent prince, from time to time renewing his
raids into the neighbouring district. At that time
also Fujiwara Sumitomo rebelled in western Japan.
He allied himself with pirates, ruled the Seto inland
sea with them, and made raids on the coasts. He
even extended his plundering enterprises as far as
the capital, Ki5to, and set fire to it.
BEGINNINGS OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 63
So that anarchical conditions prevailed. The
imperial court lived in fear and terror. They
managed to equip an expedition against Taira
Masakado, but it only reached Shimosa when
Masakado had already been defeated and killed
(940 a.d.) by independent nobles in the province of
Hidachi, by Taira Sadamori, whose father he had
murdered, and by Fujiwara Hidesato. Fujiwara
Sumitomo, likewise, was not conquered by the
central government but by the territorial nobility.
His conquerors were Minamoto Tsune-moto and
Ono-no-Yoshifuru.
The authority and influence of the Taira and the
Minamoto greatly increased during this period.
There existed a great distinction between them and
the Fujiwara. The Fujiwara were a family of ministers
and their importance lay in the fact that they held
the court and all the officials in their hands. The
others relied on the military power which they had
established in their territories.
CHAPTER IX
THE FUJIWARA FAMILY AS GUARDIANS OF THE
STATE. JAPANESE INFLUENCE ON CHINESE
CIVILIZATION
MURAKAMI-Tenno (946-967), the son of Daigo-
Tenno made a fresh attempt to get the government
of the state into his own hands. Although possessed
of undoubted talent, he was not successful in
effecting any real reform in the conditions of
government. The power of the Fujiwara family had
already become too strong. His son, Reizei-Tenno
(967-969), came again under the guardianship
of the powerful clan, and for more than a century,
the old imperial family sank into entire insignificance.
The court life of the Fujiwara wTas of great
magnificence, especially that of Fujiwara Michinaga,
who governed the country for about 30 years as
guardian for three Emperors. He married his three
daughters to imperial princes and became the
grandfather of three Emperors. His five sons were
appointed to the highest offices. He set up and
deposed Emperors at pleasure. The Fujiwara loved
splendour and luxury and encouraged the fine arts.
GUARDIANS OF THE STATE 65
Fujiwara Michinaga erected magnificent buildings
and laid out fine gardens. Of all the temples he
built, the finest was the royal temple at Mido. He
was therefore called Mido Kambaku. His motto was :
■ The moon changes every month, but I am always
the full moon.'* His son Yorimichi was also guardian
for about 50 years and for three Emperors. Then he
resigned and lived in royal splendour in Uji as Uji-
Kambaku.
The most important circumstance of this period of
the supremacy of the Fujiwara was that the Chinese
civilization that had hitherto prevailed took on more
and more of Japanese colour. For a long time
China had been in a disturbed condition, and
endless civil wars had rendered regular diplomatic
intercourse with a foreign state impossible. There-
fore by the advice of the chancellor, Sugawara
Michizane, Daigo-Tenno had not sent ambassadors
to China, and in the following years official relations
had been lacking with a country torn by civil war.
So that Japanese civilization began to assume an
independent national character.
The syllabic writing consisting of 47 letters
invented by Kukai now came into practical use.
We have already mentioned that the author, Kino
Tsurayuki, used it for his prose works. Many writers
followed his example, e.g. the unknown author of the
Satire (< Torikaebaya-monogatari,"1 and the learned
poetess Murasaki-Shikibu who lived at the imperial
1 The story of the topsy-turvy world.
66 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
court, in her " Genji-monogatari," ' and the learned
lady-in-waiting, Seishonagon, in her regular reports
of the events of the day destined for the court, which
were collected under the title of " Makura-no-soshi,"
and in her songs. At that time learned women and
poetesses were no rarity at court. Girls received an
excellent education. Women held as important a
place at court as they did in European society.
In the satire " Torikaebaya-monogatari " mentioned
above, the unknown author scourges that condition
of things and says, scoffingly, the men were women
and the women men.
In architecture also, an independent spirit now
ruled, and it was freed from Chinese influence.
Beautiful gardens were laid out with fountains, ponds,
and artificial eminences, and pretty country houses
were built. Chinese costume went out of fashion,
and clothes were made according to Japanese taste.
The Japanese garment " Kimono," came into
being. Japanese arts and industries developed
independently, and furniture and utensils were made
in their own taste. Painting and sculpture produced
original talent. The painter Takuma Tamenari made
his celebrated wall paintings at Uji in the royal
temple Hoodo, built by Uji-Kambaku, and Jocho
his well-known statues of Buddha.
When the tribe Joshin, which occupied a fairly
independent position in Manchuria, attacked the
inhabitants of the Japanese islands, Iki and Tsush-
1 The story of the hero Genji.
Murasaki-Shikibu
I KVrn* J, Hf.
GUARDIANS OF THE STATE 67
ima, Fujiwara Takaie, the President of the Dazaifu
board which, as we have already said, governed the
province of Tsukushi, successfully repulsed the
enemy. _JBut soon afterwards in the time of Go-
Reizei-Tenno (1045-1068), the noble and great
landed proprietor Abe-no- Yoritoki and his son set
on foot a rebellion in the province of Mutsu. The
Fujiwara were powerless against them, and the
Emperor was compelled to beg help of the Minamoto
against the rebels. After twelve years' fighting, the
Minamoto succeeded in quelling the rising. During
that time their military power increased, and they
were soon strong enough in alliance with the Taira
to put down the power of the hitherto ruling family
of officials, the Fujiwara.
PART III
THE TAIRA AND MINAMOTO
CHAPTER X
ABOLITION OF GOVERNMENT BY GUARDIANS OF
THE FUJIWARA FAMILY AND EMPERORS WHO HAD
ABDICATED. GROWING POWER OF THE TAIRA
AND MINAMOTO.
UNDER the guardianship of the Fujiwara family, the
Emperor led a wretched^ sort of mock existence.
They forced the adult Emperors to abdicate so
that most of the Emperors who sat on the
throne were minors. The imperial princes were
married to daughters of the Fujiwara, and those
alliances increased the power of the clan. But the
Fujiwara, like the Emperors of an earlier time, gave
themselves up to a life of luxury, wasted their
strength in excesses, and entirely neglected to
establish a military basis. So that directly a capable
ruler came to the throne, he was able to free himself
from their guardianship.
x Such an Emperor was Go-Sanjo-Tenn5 (1068-
\ 1072). On his accession he directed all his efforts to
I put an end to the co-operation of the Fujiwara in the
igovernment and to restore the imperial family to
^power and esteem. As far as possible he ruled by
72 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
himself, and the Fujiwara family and the rest of the
nobility had to content themselves with administering
their own property and the provinces they had
gained. The Emperor forbade the officials to sell
their posts and arranged that officials could only be
appointed by himself. He practised great economy,
and tried to curb the expenditure of the officials.
And thus he was able somewhat to improve public
order and administration. His last political idea was
that the restoration of the guardianship of the
Fujiwara must be prevented and that therefore the
Emperor should abdicate in good time, and himself
become the guardian of his successor. He put his
idea into practice by abdicating himself, and
continuing to govern as guardian. Then death over-
took him.
His son, Shirakawa-Tenno (1072-1086), the 72nd
Emperor, followed his father's example, and under-
took the guardianship of his son, and after his death,
of his grandson. And so the guardianship of the
Fujiwara was abolished for ever. Yet they continued
to hold a great position at court, since the most
important offices of state were still filled by members
of their family.
Shirakawa-Tenno did not inherit his father's
economy. He built many temples, set up over 3,000
statues of Buddha, and undertook pilgrimages to the
temples of Koza and Kumano, both at a great
distance from the capital. These pilgrimages cost
large sums of money, since the Emperor was
accompanied by a large and splendidly equipped
ABOLITION OF GOVERNMENT 73
suite. And so it came that he was forced to sell
offices and privileges for money, and that in
consequence the imperial power was weakened.
His piety and his submission to the Buddhist
religion had a very bad result in the power of the
priests who from that time became more and more
overbearing. They even entered on wars, collected
mercenary troops, and made private war. The
temples of Enriakuji and Kofukuji, especially, collected
large armies and entered into bloody wars. They
paid no heed to imperial decrees. In order to defy
the government, they allied themselves more closely,
made continual raids on Kioto, and threatened the
court there. Shirakawa-Tenn5 used to say : " As
little as the weeds and the waters of the Kamogawa1
obey my orders, as little do my priests heed them."
The Taira and the Minamoto were his last refuge ; he
begged them to come to the capital to protect it from
the attacks of the priests. A short time before, the
Minamoto family had, at the Emperor's request,
defeated Kiyowara Takehira, the imperial commander,
and his nephew who had led an insurrection in the
province of Mutsu. So the two military families
became indispensable to the imperial court, and in
time gained the same power as the Fujiwara had had
before them.
lKawa or Gawa = river.
CHAPTER XI
STRIFE IN THE IMPERIAL FAMILY. SUPREMACY
OF THE TAIRA AND MINAMOTO
BLOODY dissensions that occurred in the imperial
family itself contributed in an important degree to
strengthen the power of the two ambitious military
families.
After the death of Shirakawa-TennS, his grandson,
the Toba-Tenn5 who had abdicated, undertook the
guardianship for his eldest son, Sutoku-Tenno (1123-
1 141 ). But he soon deposed him and set his youngest
and favourite son, Konoe-Tenno (1141-1155), on the
throne. He died, however, when he was sixteen years
old, and then Toba-Tenn5 bestowed the imperial
throne on another of his sons, Go-Shirakawa-Tenn5
(11 5 5- 1 158). This roused the anger of his deposed
eldest son, Sutoku-Tenno, who desired that he or his
son should be Emperor. As long as his father lived,
he controlled his anger, but on his death he assembled
a large army, and laid siege to Go-Shirakawa-Tenn5's
palace. In sore need he was compelled to call in the
help of Minamoto Yoshitomo and Taira Kiyomori,
who after severe fighting put the deposed Sutoku-
STRIFE IN THE IMPERIAL FAMILY 75
Tennd to flight. He fell into the hands of the
imperial army and was banished to the province of
Sanuki in the island of Shikoku.
The two families, who in this manner acquired a
most influential position at the imperial court, soon
began to quarrel among themselves.
CHAPTER XII
HOSTILITY BETWEEN THE TAIRA AND MINAMOTO
MiNAMOTO YOSHITOMO was a distinguished soldier,
and Taira Kiyomori an astute statesman. The latter,
through his friendship with Shinsai, an intriguing
court official and a favourite of the Emperor, acquired
greater influence and power at court than Minamoto.
At that time also one of the Fujiwara named Nobu-
yori enjoyed the favour of Go-Shirakawa-Tenno. He
sought by his intervention to get himself appointed
general of the guards. But the Emperor at the
instigation of Shinsai, the rival favourite, refused
his request. Fujiwara sought a means of revenge
and allied himself with Minamoto Yoshimoto who
was an enemy of Taira Kiyomori, and his friend the
courtier Shinsai. In 1 159 Fujiwara and Minamoto
came to open war with the Taira. They soon
defeated them, occupied the imperial palace and for
ten days ruled in the name of the Emperor. But the
Taira quickly collected fresh troops with-whom they
now proceeded to gain a victory over their enemies.
Fujiwara Nobuyori and Yoshitomo's eldest son were
taken prisoners in the battle, and soon afterwards
77
executed. Minamoto Yoshitomo fled, and hid among
his vassals, but they, from fear of punishment,
treacherously murdered him.
The Taira were now determined to render the
Minamoto family harmless forever. They banished
Yorimoto, the eldest of Yoshitomo's surviving sons
(by his lawful wife) to the province of Izu where he
was placed under the surveillance of Hojo Tokimasa,
one of their vassals. The other sons with their mother
(a concubine of Yoshitomo) were taken prisoners in
the country. The mother only saved her children's
lives by giving herself to her deadly foe, Taira Ki-
yomori. The children, one of whom was later the
famous Yoshitsune, were hidden in a monastery.
The vassals of the conquered family were distributed
through various districts of the land, and it seemed as
if a restoration of the Minamoto was rendered
absolutely impossible. But even in exile, their vassals
remained loyal to them, and only waited until Yo-
shitomo's sons should be grown up, in order, under
their leadership, to take up arms for their hereditary
lords.
CHAPTER XIII
SUPREMACY AND FALL OF THE TAIRA
After this war the Taira held all the power in their
own hands. Kiyomori was chancellor-in-chief and
received the title of Juichii.1 His daughter was the
wife of Takakura-Tenn5 (1168-1180). His sons and
other relatives, sixteen in number, were ministers, or
held other high offices. Half of the whole of the
Japanese Empire was in the private ownership of the
Taira family. It was said at that time that no one
who did not belong to the race of the Taira was a man.
The family soon became so arrogant and proud that
it was universally hated.
Even Go-Shirakawa-Tenno who had abdicated, had
to suffer under their authority and tried to free him-
self from it. Therefore his favourite Fujiwara Nari-
chika brought together many malcontents in the
house of the priest Shunkan in the village of
Shishi-ga-dani, and they formed a conspiracy. They
were discovered, and the conspirators were put to
death or exiled. Taira Kiyomori conceived a plan
1 The highest title that an official can hold in his lifetime.
Taira Shigemori
Face />. 79]
SUPREMACY AND FALL OF THE TAIRA 79
to imprison Go-Shirakawa-Tenno, whom he entirely
mistrusted. But his son, Shigemori, who remained
loyal to the deposed Emperor was able for some time
to prevent its execution. When, however, he had
died of grief for his father's many misdeeds, the latter
kept Go-Shirakawa-Tenno a prisoner in a castle near
the capital.
But when soon after the wife of the Emperor Taka-
kura, the daughter of Taira Kiyomori, bore a son,
Kiyomori compelled Takakura-Tenno to abdicate, and
placed the new-born infant on the throne as Antoku-
Tenno (1180-1185) in order to assume the guardian-
ship for his grandson. He now felt himself secure in
power, and kept a brilliant and luxurious court. And
his officials and all the members of his family did like-
wise and led a life of luxury and dissipation, in abso-
lute certainty of the strength of their supremacy.
But the Minamoto and their dependents had never
ceased to plan an attack on their enemies.
Minamoto Yoshitsune left the monastery, and fled
to the north of the empire, where he prepared himself
for the coming fight by many a knightly adventure.
Meanwhile Minamoto Yoritomo had made friends with
his guardian, Hojo Tokimasa, and had married his
daughter. He was the real leader of the conspiracy
against the Taira. Secretly the Minamoto won adher-
ents and economised their strength. It was of the
greatest importance that the son of the imprisoned Go-
Shirakawa-Tenno should support them, and with his
consent, Minamoto Yoritomo began to collect troops in
the province of Izu, while his cousin, Minamoto
8o A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Yoshinaka, collected the sinews of war in the province
of Shinano.
Taira Kiyomori was not to live to see the end of the
struggle. On hearing of the rebellion he sent a
powerful army against Yoritomo, but it could do
nothing against him, and after receiving the news of
the defeat Kiyomori died.
Minamoto Yoshinaka had meanwhile succeeded in
subduing the province of Shinano, and soon conquered
also the territory lying to the north-west of the pro-
vince. He put an army sent against him by the
Taira to flight, and pursued it even to the capital.
The Taira then fled with the young Antoku-Tenn5
and the insignia1 preserved in the imperial palace, to
the west of Japan.
Go-Shirakawa-Tennd returned to the capital from
his prison. He set up Go-Toba-Tenno, a half-brother
of Antoku-Tenno as Emperor, so that there were now
two Emperors.
Strife soon broke out between the victors. By his
insolent and cruel government Minamoto Yoshinaka
evoked the hostility of Go-Shirakawa, the guardian of
1 The insignia consisted of copies of the mirror and
sword. According to the Nihongi, Sujin-Tennd built a temple
in Kasanui (province of Yamato) for the mirror and sword that
had been presented by Amaterasu-Omikami. At the same time
he had copies made of them which were preserved in the im-
perial palace together with the Magatama. Under Suinin-
Tenno the real mirror and sword were kept in another place.
He built a new temple for them in the province of Ise on the
Isuzu where they continued to be preserved.
Battle of the Minamoto and Taira
SUPREMACY AND FALL OF THE TAIRA 81
the Emperor. He summoned Minamoto Yoritomo to
his aid, who meanwhile had made Kamakura in the
plain of Kant5 his residence and from there directed
the enterprise against the Taira. Yoritomo sent an
army against Yoshinaka under the command of his
brothers of whom Yoshitsune especially distinguished
himself by deeds of valour. They were victorious and
by the order of Yoritomo they put Yoshinaka to death.
The Taira thought to use these quarrels of the
Minamoto family to regain their old supremacy.
They ventured an attack on the capital which was an
entire failure. Driven back they fled into the province
of Sanuki. The Minamoto pursued them, and gained
a victory over them, and the Taira had to take refuge
in their ships and flee to the west. But there, too,
they were pursued by land or sea by their victorious
adversaries. When they tried to land on the coast of
the Dan-no-ura Sea it was already occupied by the
Minamoto. Some who tried to effect a landing
by force, fell in the struggle, and the rest were
drowned. The Emperor's grandmother, the widow of
Taira Kiyomori, threw herself into the sea with the
young Antoku-Tenno and the imperial insignia. And
so after a supremacy of thirty years the Taira family
was destroyed for ever (i 185).
The imperial family for whom the Taira had become
too powerful did not long enjoy the triumph of their
downfall. They had had a dangerous ally in the
struggle, one who was now all powerful and able to
secure greater authority in the Empire than the
Taira had possessed.
6
THIRD PERIOD
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE KAMAKURA
SHOGUNATE TO THE END OF THE TOKU-
GAWA SHOGUNATE (FEUDAL PERIOD)
PART I
THE KAMAKURA SHOGUNATE
CHAPTER I.
FOUNDATION OF THE KAMAKURA SHOGUNATE BY
THE MINAMOTO FAMILY. THEIR SUPREMACY AND
THEIR FALL THROUGH THE HOJO FAMILY
It has been already stated that Minamoto Yoritomo,
at the time of the downfall of his family, had taken up
his residence at Kamakura in the eastern province of
Sagami, and thence conducted the military enterprises
of his family. The Samurai-dokoro, the officials ap-
pointed by Yoritomo for military affairs, had their
seat there. When the whole power came into the
hands of the Minamoto, Kamakura became the real
seat of government. Yoritomo appointed Kumonjo
or Mandokoro, the actual government officials, with
Monjusho to be officers of justice. The councils ap-
pointed by Yoritomo at Kamakura possessed in real-
ity the power of the government. The old Dajokan
and the ministers and councils working under him,
remained in the imperial capital Kioto, but their
offices were merely titular. They no longer possessed
real practical power. In 1192 Go-Toba Tenno sent
an embassy to Yoritomo which appointed him Shogun,
i.e. commander-in-chief. Thence comes the term,
86 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Shogunate of Kamakura. As Shogun, Yoritomo was
the sole head of the government. He levied taxes,
and was especially careful to collect those due for the
army, and paid his soldiers. He rewarded those who
had been loyal to him with large grants of land. He
was respectful to the Emperor and formally recog-
nised him as the actual ruler. In reality the sovereign
did not possess the slightest power in the country>
and exercised no influence on Yoritomo's government.
The foundation of the Shogunate was not a mere
chance or passing event in the historical development
of Japan nor must it be regarded merely as the act
of any one great man like Yoritomo. It was the
result of a long evolution which marks the essen-
tial character of the Japanese Empire, the evolution of
the feudal system which had its beginnings in the
time of the Fujiwara. Yoritomo owed the power to
acquire so independent a position with regard to the
Emperor and the government of the state entirely to
the loyalty of his vassals who, during the period of
persecution, had remained faithful to him, and the
powerful position of great families like the Taira and
Minamoto was only a circumstance in the evolution of
the feudal system. In the course of the last centuries
new powers had arisen. The power of the Emperor
and of the imperial officials was wholly abolished by
the power of the feudal lords, the DaimiSs, who relied
on the support of their vassals, the Samurai, whom we
may already call knights. The actual reins of govern-
ment were held by the most powerful of the feudal
lords, the Shogun.
MlNAMOTO YORITOMO
THE KAMAKURA-SHOGUNATE 87
With the establishment of the Shogunate a new
epoch of Japanese history began, just as the great
reforms of the Taika years formed another. With some
breaks, the Shogunate remained the prevailing form
of government until quite modern times, until Japan
came into closer relations with Europe.
Simultaneously with the progress and change due
to the feudal system in the political conditions of
Japan, there were also important ethical developments
in the Japanese nation which the Japanese call " Bus-
hido" (chivalry). Bushido is of fundamental import-
ance for the moral outlook ot the Japanese nation,
and we shall often have to speak of it in greater
detail.
Yoritomo understood how to use the new develop-
ment for his own aims. He possessed great organiz-
ing and administrative talent, and succeeded in
founding a new central government and bringing the
whole of the empire under its sway. But side by side
with his great intellectual gifts and his energy, he had
serious faults of character. Only too soon he showed
himself accessible to the evil influence of the H5j5
family to which he owed his life, and from among
whom he had chosen a wife. Through them he per-
secuted his brave brother, Yoshitsune, who had gained
many laurels in the late fighting and who together
with his friend Benkei is still celebrated in the songs
of the poets. When Yoshitsune saw that his brother
had designs on his life, he fled, and raised a rebellion
which was unsuccessful. Finally he was murdered by
a great noble in Mutsu. Yoritomo also got rid of his
88 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
younger brother Noriyori, and so through his own
fault the supremacy of his family was soon ended by
the very persons in whom he had put his trust.
On the death of Yoritomo, his son Yoriie became
Shogun. After four years his grandfather, Hojo
Tokimasa, banished him, and then had him murdered.
His brother Sanetomo, the third Shogun, succumbed
to a plot of Hojo Yoshitoki, the son of Tokimasa.
He was the last of Yoritomo's descendants. But the
ruin of the Minamoto family, through the establish-
ment of the Shogunate had little influence on the new
political ordering of the state.
CHAPTER II
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SUPREMACY OF THE HOJO
FAMILY. FAINEANTS SHOGUNS AND SHIKKEN.
When the Minamoto family became extinct with the
murder of the third Shogun by Hojo Yoshitoki, the
Hojo family could not at once gain possession of the
Shogunate, as they were not of noble birth. They
had originally not been freemen, and had only won
respect in military service with great nobles, at last
with the Taira. None of the great families of the
nobility would have recognised a Hojo as Shogun.
Therefore H5jo Yoshitoki first summoned a one year
old boy of the Fujiwara from the capital, appointed him
Shogun, and conducted the government for him under
the title of Shikken, i.e. deputy of the commander-in-
chief.
Go-Toba-Tenno, the deposed Emperor, disliked the
tyrannical rule of the Shikken, and decided to crush
the Hojo family by means of his son, Juntoku-Tenno.
For that purpose Juntoku-Tennd abdicated, and his
son Chukio-Tenno ascended the throne.
The preparations made by the imperial family were
betrayed to Hojo Yoshitoki. He immediately sent
9o A HISTORY OF JAPAN
his brother and his son with an army against the
capital. A battle with the troops which the Emperor
hurriedly collected ensued and resulted in their
defeat. Yoshitoki deposed Chukio-Tenno, raised
his cousin Go-Horikawa-Tenno to the throne,
and sent Go-Toba-Tenno, the instigator of the
rebellion, and his family, into exile. He placed a
permanent garrison in the capital under the command
of a Rokuhara-Tandai, who had surveillance over the
Emperor, and had the right of deciding whether an
emperor should remain on the throne or should
abdicate.
Hojd Yasutoki, son of Yoshitoki, and also his son,
Tokiyori, had prosperous and happy reigns. Yasutoki
instituted a law comprising 5 1 articles relating to the
new order of knights. It was called Jdei-Shikimoku '
after the Joei year (1232) in which it was proclaimed.
Tokiyori made an imperial prince Shogun, and the
innovation had the result that for the future the
Sh5gunate was always held by princes, generally
minors.
1 Shikimoku»i*w.
Mongolian Ship Attacked by Japanese
Face p. 91]
CHAPTER III
REPULSE OF MONGOLIAN ATTEMPTS AT INVASION
THE most important event in the reign of the Shikken
is the repulse of the Mongolian attacks on Japan.
Mangkan, king of the Mongols, grandson of the
famous Dshingiskhan who had pillaged eastern
Europe from 12 19 to 1225, and cousin of the Bathu
who conquered Russia, and penetrated victoriously as
far as Liegnitz in Silesia (1241), ordered his brother
Khubilai-khan to bring China under his sway.
Khubilai-khan succeeded in subduing a large part of
China and Korea. When by the death of his
brother, he became lord of Mongolia and the
conquered territories, he made Peking his capital,
and sent ambassadors to Japan to demand that the
Emperor should recognise his supremacy. But at the
instigation of the Shikken the embassy was sent back.
Khubilai-khan equipped a fleet which with 30,000
men sailed the sea to conquer the Japanese islands.
Hojo Tokimune prevented them from landing, and
on their return the whole fleet was destroyed by a
storm. In order to protect himself from further
attacks, Hoj5 Tokimune fortified the bay of Hakata,
92 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
which was the chief place where the enemy would
land, and put a strong garrison there.
In 1281, in the reign of Go-Uda-Tenn5 (1274-1287),
Kubilai-khan again sent a large fleet with an army
100,000 men strong to Japan, but the cleverness
of Hojo Tokimune and the courage of the Japanese
warriors enabled them to repel the attack and the
hostile fleet was again destroyed by a storm on their
return voyage. Only a few of the Mongols were
saved and returned home. That was the last time
that a foreign foe attempted to conquer Japan.
The war, however, for the first time, gave opportunity
lO a European, the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo,
who was then living at the Court of Kubilai-khan, to
learn something about Japan, and he published the
result of his studies in his travels as an account of
Jipang.
CHAPTER IV
ART, LEARNING AND RELIGION AT THE TIME OF
THE KAMAKURA-SHOGUNATE.
The disturbances during the time of the Taira and
Minamoto had not destroyed the beginnings made in
art and learning during the Nara and Fujiwara time.
They found no place, however, among the knightly
order. The knights cared only for fighting, and spent
times of peace in military exercises, tournaments,
wrestling, shooting with the bow, etc. If the young
Samurai learnt to read, he confined his reading to
tales of the heroic deeds of his ancestors.
But a very different life prevailed at the imperial
court. Shut out entirely from political and military
activities, there was leisure for the encouragement of
learning and especially of poetry. Japan reckons as
its best poets, Go-Toba-Tenno, Juntoko-Tenno,
Fujiwara Shunzei and his son Fujiwara Teika,
Fujiwara Ietaka and the Buddhist priest, Saigio.
The Buddhist priests had great importance in the
development of Japanese culture. For Buddhism
had just entered on a new epoch. Hitherto that
religion had, on account of its philosophical character,
94 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
been confined to the educated class, for it was too
difficult for the unlearned to understand. Buddhism
was first made accessible to the common people,
through the sects which practiced a wide tolerance,
took heed of the needs of the people, and understood
how to make their teaching comprehended by all.
They have already been mentioned as the Tendai-Shu
and Shingon-Shu. The following are the most
important of the later sects. The priest, Honen-
Shonin, founded the JddS-shu.1 The chief doctrine
of that sect was that salvation could only be obtained
by the grace of Buddha and that men must un-
ceasingly pray : " Namu amida butsu," i.e. " I trust
in Buddha." Shinran-Shonin, the pupil of Honen-
Sh5nin, founded the Shin-shu. That sect permitted
marriage and the eating of meat. Nichiren-Shonin
founded a sect which bore the name Nichiren-Shu
after him, or Hokke-Shu after his teaching. Contrary
to the "Namu amida butsu," of the Jod5-Shu, he
taught the prayer: "Namu mio horen gekio," i.e.
"I trust in the beautiful Hokekio." Hokekio is
according to Nichiren the classic book of Buddha's
doctrine.
Through these sects Buddhism not only became
extremely powerful in Japan and the prevailing
religion, but it led also to the secular progress of the
land. Buddhist priests occupied themselves more
than formerly with secular tasks, poetry, the arts and
learning. Saigio, for example, was a famous poet.
1 Jodo=the kingdom of God. Shu = sect.
ART, LEARNING AND RELIGION 95
Art-loving Buddhist priests encouraged the painters,
Tosa Mitsunaga and Fujiwara Nobuzane, and the
carvers, Unkei and Tankei to produce their famous
works which were mostly destined to adorn Buddhist
temples.
The manufacture of pottery, especially, made pro-
gress among the people.
CHAPTER V
DIVISION OF THE IMPERIAL LINE. ABOLITION
OF THE SHOGUNATE
Go-Saga-Tenno (1242- i 246) preferred his younger
son to the elder who had already ascended the throne
as Go-Fukakusa-Tenno (1246-1259); he compelled
Go-Fukakusa-Tenno to abdicate, and the younger son
became Emperor with the name Kameyana-Tenno
(1 259-1 274). And Go-Saga-Tenno determined that
the Imperial dignity should remain for ever in the
Kameyana family. Therefore Go-Fukakusa-Tenn5
allied himself with the Shikken, Hojo Tokimune, and
with his aid, after the death of Go-Saga-Tenno, placed
his son on the throne as Fushimi-Tenno (1287- 1298),
and deposed his younger brother. Sadatoki, son of
Hojo Tokimune, at first attached himself to the line
of the elder brother, and placed the son of Fushimi-
Tenno on the throne as Go-Fushimi-Tenno (1298-
1301). But in consequence of the continual complaints
of Go-Uda-Tenno (1274- 1287), who had abdicated,
about the violation of his grandfather's will, he deter-
mined later that in future each line should reign
alternately. The chief branch of the elder brother,
DIVISION OF THE IMPERIAL LINE 97
Go-Fukakusa-Tenno, was henceforth called Ji-mio-in,
for after his abdication he lived at Ji-mio-in ; the
chief branch of the younger was called Daigagu-ji
after the temple of Daigagu-ji which it had made its
seat.
The Shikken, Hojo Takatoki, the son of Sadatoki,
led a dissipated and extravagant life and practised
great cruelties. And so all the people hated him, and
desired that he should be removed. The reigning
Emperor, Go-Daigo-Tenno (13 18-1339), who belonged
to the Daigagu-ji branch, thought the opportunity
had come to free himself from the Shikken's authority,
and to put an end to the Shogunate for ever. But
his plan became known to the Shikken who in 1331
sent a large army against the capital. The imperial
army succumbed. The Emperor was taken prisoner
as he fled, and banished to the island of Oki. The
Shikken chose the new Emperor, Kogon-Tenno, from
the other branch.
The war roused public opinion, and a strong imperial
party came into being, the object of which was the
fall of the Shikken. As adherents of the Emperor
may be mentioned : Kusunoki Masashige, Akamatsu
Norimura, Nawa Nagatoshi, and the Nitta and
Ashikaga families who were both descended from
the Minamoto family. Nitta Yoshisada collected
troops in his province of Kozuke and marched to
Kamakura. During the siege, Hojo Takatoki and
his whole family and his adherents took refuge in a
temple where they all, about 200 in number, committed
suicide. Meanwhile Go-Daigo-Tenno had returned
7
98 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
from the island of Oki. Nawa Nagatoshi had assembled
troops for him in the province of Hold, and with them
he began to conquer the neighbouring provinces.
Kusunoki Masashige led a rebellion in support of Go-
Daigo-Tenno in the province of Kawachi which was
situated near the capital. Ashikagu Takauji, another
adherent of Go-Daigo-Tenno, a few weeks after the
fall of the Hojo family, succeeded in taking possession
of the capital. After Go-Daigo-Tenno and his sup-
porters had marched into the capital, Kogon-Tenno
who owed his crown to Hoj5-Takatoki, abdicated,
and left the throne to Go-Daigo-Tenno who was now
actually in sole possession of the government (1333).
But the Emperor only enjoyed for a brief space the
independence of which for the last 150 years, the
throne had been deprived by the Shogunate.
PART II
RESTORATION, DIVISION, AND RECONCILIATION
OF THE IMPERIAL DYNASTY
CHAPTER VI
REIGN AND FALL OF GO-DAIGO-TENNO
After his entry into the capital, Go-Daigo-Tenn6
ruled the whole Empire himself. He gave the command
of the army to Prince Morinaga, appointed Prince
Norinaga, governor of the north, and Prince
Narinaga, who had hitherto been Shogun in Kamakura,
governor of the city and of the plain of Kanto. The
position of the old imperial officials like the Dajokan,
and his subordinate ministers who under the Shogunate
had sunk into entire insignificance, was now improved
although they never regained their former importance,
as the Emperor appointed new officials and gave
them the actual power. These changes in the govern-
ment were known as the reforms of the Kemmu year.
Only a portion of the men who had distinguished
themselves in the war received great rewards. Many
went unrewarded, while many court favourites
received gifts beyond their deserts. Complaints
soon arose in the army about the conferring of dis-
tinctions. The ill-feeling increased the more it was
recognised that under the imperial government the
military element lost the importance it had had
under the Shogunate, and the more the imperial
civil officials and the courtiers triumphed over it.
io2 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
The people, too, were infected by the discontent, for
in spite of the heavy taxes which oppressed them
as a result of the war, the Emperor built new palaces
and kept an extravagant court. Nearly everyone
began to long for the former government.
Ashikaga Takauji desired to make use of the
discontent to restore the Shogunate government in
favour of his family. Prince Morinaga was clever
enough to scent out the plan, told the Emperor of his
fears, and tried to make it of no. avail. But Ashikaga
slandered him to the Emperor, and effected his banish-
ment to Kamakura where he had him murdered.
When H5jo Tokiyuki, the only Hojo who at the
destruction of the family was saved by a servant,
raised a rebellion in Kamakura, he seized the
opportunity to obtain the command of the army from
the Emperor with the order to suppress the rebels.
He increased his army by recruiting a large number
of malcontents who were ready to rebel against the
imperial rule. After defeating Hojo, he publicly put
himself in opposition to the Emperor.
The Emperor ordered Nitta Yoshisada to subdue
him. But after several battles in the mountains of
Hakone, Nitta's army was destroyed, and Nitta
himself fled with what remained of it to Kioto. Then
Akamatsu Norimura who was also dissatisfied with
the Imperial government went over to Ashikaga with
a large body of troops, and they took the capital.
Go-Daigo-Tenno fled to the temple on the hill of Hiei.
Meanwhile Nitta Yoshisada had assembled a fresh
band of combatants among the Emperor's adherents,
REIGN AND FALL OF GO-DAIGO-TENNO 103
and hurried secretly with them to the capital, attacked
Ashikaga's army, put it to flight, and recaptured the
town for the Emperor who was able to return again,
but only for a short time.
Ashikaga fled to the island of Kiusu and began
there, supported by the authority of Kogon-Tenno
(of the other imperial branch), to collect fresh troops
in order to march again on the capital. His friend
Akamatsu attacked the imperial troops led by Nitta
Yoshisada, which had pursued Ashikaga to Kiusiu,
and were here entirely destroyed, and kept them
fighting until Ashikaga had collected his new army,
and made an attack on the imperial capital. When
Nitta received the news of Ashikaga's march on
Kioto, he took up an advantageous position near the
village of Hi5go, and there awaited the hostile army.
Ashikaga now joined with Akamatsu, and soon after,
near Hiogo, with his brother who had hastened from
Kiusiu with a fleet. A fierce battle took place at
Hiogo in which the imperial army was defeated.
The imperial commander, Kusunoki Masashigej
killed himself during the fight. Nitta Yoshisada
fled back into the capital which was soon
besieged by the enemy. Go-Daigo-Tenno again
took refuge in the temple on the hill of Hiei, and
Nitta Yoshisada escaped to the north with the crown
prince and the other princes. Ashikaga took
possession of the capital, and placed a prince of the
other imperial line, Komio-Tenno 1 on the throne
(1336).
1 He was a brother of Kogon-Tenno.
CHAPTER VII
DYNASTIES OF THE NORTH AND SOUTH
FROM the temple on the hill of Hiei, Go-Daigo-Tenno
fled to the province of Yamato, south of the capital,
and lived there in the village of Yoshino. There
were again two Emperors in Japan, a dynasty of the
north and a dynasty of the south. The imperial
insignia was in possession of the dynasty of the
south, and it was therefore regarded as the rightful
imperial line. If its dominions only included a small
part of the empire, it possessed much sympathy in
the land of the opposing dynasty, and numbered the
best men of the Empire among its adherents. The
division lasted for 56 years and during that time,
three Emperors of the southern, and five of the
northern dynasty reigned. The whole period was one
of fighting between the two families, and actual
war prevailed for 20 years without a break.
In 1349, Ashikaga, who then possessed the real
governing power in the Empire of the northern
dynasty, commanded his general, Kono Moronao, to
march with the whole army against the southern
dynasty. Kusunoki Masatsura (son of the Kusunoki
DYNASTIES OF THE NORTH AND SOUTH 105
Masashige who had committed suicide at the decisive
defeat of the rightful Emperor), who like his father
remained faithful to his imperial house, marched out
with all his adherents to attack him in the field of
Shijonawate. A battle ensued in which despite their
courage the adherents of the rightful line were defeated.
Kusunoki Masatsura and his whole family committed
suicide. Kono Moronao attacked the imperial
palace, and Go-Murakami-Tenno, son of Go-Daigo-
Tenn5 had to flee farther to the south. His former
palace was razed to the ground. Tenno was not
pursued farther, for the valley in which he had taken
refuge was surrounded by mountains, the passes of
which could be easily defended, and so Go-Murakami-
Tenno made Kano in that district his place of
residence.
But soon the victorious northern dynasty was
weakened by the numerous rebellions in their kingdom.
All the Daimios who were striving for independence
used these divisions in the reigning family to gain
their independence. They left the northern dynasty
under the pretext that they only dared to obey the
rightful Emperor, and supported by their Samurai
vassals, they attained absolute independence. There
were innumerable struggles between the different
Daimios since each sought to extend his possessions,
and universal anarchy prevailed in the land. Those
disturbances were the harbingers of the later hundred
years' war.
Amid the confusion, Ashikaga Takauji obtained
the consent of the northern dynasty to the restoration
106 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
of the ShSgunate. Following the example of the
former ShSgunate of Kamakura, he placed new
Shogunate councils at Kioto. It was hoped that the
councils which differed from the imperial civil service
through their military authority, would be able to
restore order.
The Shogun, Ashikaga Takauji and his son who
succeeded him in the office, again took up the struggle
against the southern dynasty. But as it was impos-
sible to carry on the war, and at the same time to
introduce improvements into the domestic affairs of
the Empire, the third Shogun Yoshimitsu (1368-1394)
thought it wiser to make peace with the southern
dynasty. In 1392 an embassy of the Shogun con-
ducted Go-Kameyama-Tenno, the Emperor of the
southern dynasty to Kioto where a reconciliation
between him and Go-Komatsu-Tenno, the Emperor
of the northern dynasty, took place. Go-Kameyama-
Tenno abdicated, and delivered over the imperial
insignia to Go-Komatsu-Tenno. Therefore he recog-
nized him as father, and the whole Empire was again
united under one dynasty.
PART III
THE MUROMACHI OR ASHIKAGA SHOGUNATE
CHAPTER VIII
THE MUROMACHI SHOGUNATE
At first the new Shoguns had a very difficult position.
They were very far from actually governing the
whole Empire. The numerous rebellions of the
nobles in the land stood in the way, as well as the
pride and arrogance of those who were second in
command whom they were obliged to pay very highly
for their services, and who, notwithstanding, often
refused to carry out their orders. Yoshimitsu, the
third Shogun, was the first who made his influence
felt throughout the land after the peace with the
southern dynasty left him free to deal with internal
disorders. He found strong support in Hosokawa
Yoriyuki, one of the great nobles. With his help he
put down the powerful family, Yamana Ujikiyo, who
owned the sixth part of the whole empire.
After Yoshimitsu had made the Shogunate fairly
universally recognised in the Empire, he erected in a
street of Kioto, Muromachi, new and splendid govern-
ment offices for the Shogunate, which for that reason
was from that time known as the u Shogunate of
Muramachi." The chief official under the Shogun
no A HISTORY OF JAPAN
was the Kanrio, who although he possessed great
power, did not gain so important a position as the
Shikken had formerly had, for three rival families
laid claim to the office of Kanrio. These families
were the Shiba, Hosokawa and Hatakeyama, and
they were known as the three Kanrio families. The
rest of the officials were the same as those of the
Shogunate of Kamakura.
The district of Kamakura had now a certain im-
portance of its own, for the first Shogun had estab-
lished there a subordinate government for the family
of his second son. The heads of that government
were called Kamakura-Kanri5 or Kanto-Kanrio.
Yoshimitsu provided for the fortification of the
frontiers on the north and south. Instead of the
usual governors he appointed Tandai in the frontier
provinces who possessed special military authority.
The administration of the other provinces lay, as
under the Shogunate of Kamakura, in the hands of
Shugo.
When Yoshimitsu became old, he abdicated, and
was succeeded by his son, Yoshimochi. Yoshimitsu
built himself a magnificent palace in the neighbour-
hood of the capital on the Kitayama,1 called Kinkaku,
(i.e. golden, many-storied building). As " Lord of
Kitayama " he lived in great splendour, and as was
the custom of the Emperor after his abdication, never
showed himself in public unless accompanied by a
brilliant train of followers. He treated the imperial
court officials as his servants. The Shogun also
1 Kita = north : Yama = hill.
THE MUROMACHI SHOGUNATE in
adopted a similar luxurious way of living, _and.it
resulted that the Shogun families, like the Fujiwara
family of an earlier date, degenerated through luxury
and dissipation so that the administration of govern-
ment and the real power passed into the hands of the
Kanrio.
CHAPTER IX
THE DISORDERS OF THE ONIN YEARS AND THE
STRUGGLE FOR THE SUPREMACY OF KAMAKURA
The eighth Shogun, Yoshimasa (1449- 1472), led a
profligate and extravagant life, and cared little about
administering the state. The disorder that resulted
in the Empire encouraged the ambitious and power-
ful general, Yamana Sozen, to attempt to gain a more
important position for himself. With the concurrence
of the Shogun, he began war on the wealthy and
powerful family, Akamatsu, in 1441 ; he defeated them
and enriched himself with their possessions. After
this good fortune he ventured to oppose the Kanrio
Hosokawa Katsumoto. He managed to make him-
self agreeable to the Shogun's wife so that he was
appointed guardian of her son who was a minor, and
endeavoured to make him the future Sh5gun, although
Shogun Yoshimasa had expressly determined that
his own brother whose guardian was the Kanrio,
Hosokawa Katsumoto, should be the next Shogun.
The cause which was to turn the strained relations
between Yamana Sozen and Hosokawa Katsumoto
into open war was not long in arising.
DISORDERS OF THE ONIN YEARS 113
At the same time a bitter quarrel raged between
the members of the Kanri5 family, Shiba, and the
members of the KanriS family, Hatakeyama, as to
which of the families was to be the future Kanrio.
In 1467, the first of the Onin years, it came to open
war with the Hatakeyama family. When the KanriS
interfered in the struggle and declared himself on
the side of one of the rival parties, Yamana SSzen
put himself and all his power on the side of the
other. Then the two parties of the Shiba family
joined in the strife, one taking the side of the KanriS,
the other of Yamana Sozen. And so the whole
army and the whole land were involved in a civil war
which lasted ten years.
During the struggle, the capital was repeatedly
set on fire. The fine temples and palaces were
destroyed, and with them magnificent works of art
and valuable manuscripts. The two generals, KanriS
and Yamana Sozen, died in the course of the
war, which only ended because the strength of both
sides was utterly exhausted.
A still bloodier civil war raged in the district
of Kamakura.
The Kamakura KanriS had, as time went on, be-
come more powerful and arrogant. He claimed the
same honours as those enjoyed by the ShSgun.
Mochiuji, the greatgrandson of the first KantS
KanriS, resisted the orders of the ShSgunate, and
made a plan to throw off the supremacy of the
capital, KiSto. When Uesugi Norizane, one of his
nobles, warned him of the danger of such an attempt,
8
ii4 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
he threatened him with death. Uesugi Norizane
then revealed the plot of the insurrection to the
Shogun. The Shogun sent a large army against
Mochiuji which he was unable to withstand. He
was defeated in the first battle and then committed
suicide (1439).
The Onin war now followed, into which Kamakura
and its district was also drawn.
After a long struggle, Uesugi Noritada, the son of
Norizane, although he had himself held the office of
a Kanto Kanrio, and had won some power for his
family during the disorders, finally appointed
Shigeuji, the son of Mochiuji, as Kanto Kanrio.
But he cherished a distrust of his benefactor who
had been responsible for his father's fall, and had
him murdered, a deed which resulted in fresh
violent struggles. The Uesugi family summoned
their vassals and adherents against Shigeuji. He
could not withstand their attacks ; he fled to the
province of Shimosa and lived there at Koga where
he built himself a small palace. He was thenceforth
called Koga Kubo. The Uesugi family now ap-
pointed Masatomo, brother of the 8th Shdgun,
Yoshimasa, Kanto Kanrio, so that there were two
rulers. The situation was made more complicated
through the quarrel which broke out in the Uesugi
family itself. It divided into two parties which
fought against each other. One of them which was
hostile to the new Kanto Kanrid, besieged the capital,
Kamakura, and prevented the Kanrio from taking
up his residence there. He therefore set up his
DISORDERS OF THE ONIN YEARS 115
dwelling place at Horigoe in the province of Izu, and
was thenceforth called Horigoe Kubo. After a while
he was murdered there by his eldest son, because he
preferred his younger son.
These disorders only ended when a distinguished
man, Ise Naganji, (or Hojo Soun) came to the
province of Izu. He defeated Masatomo's undutiful
son and conquered the province of Izu and its
neighbourhood, and as we shall see later, his family
gained all the districts belonging to Kamakura.
CHAPTER X
THE AGE OF HIGASHIYAMA.1 ART, LITERATURE, AND
LEARNING
YOSHIMASA, the 8th Shogun, abdicated in order to
give himself up to the extravagant life of pleasure,
which he preferred to the serious business of govern-
ment. He took up his residence in Higashiyama,
in the eastern quarter of the capital, Ki5to, where he
kept a court of great magnificence, the brilliance of
which was long remembeied in the whole empire,
and gave a name to the period. Yoshimasa built
there a two-storied palace called Ginkaku.3 He
adorned the interior with manuscripts of songs
artistically written, paintings and other objects of
art, and there, among other things, the ceremonial
tea-drinking took place. The extravagance of the
court put a great strain on the financial resources of
the country, and increased the people's burden of
taxation. But nevertheless, the Ashikaga, despite
their extravagant leanings, had their merits. They
were warm patrons of the revival of the arts that
1 Higashi = east, Yama=hill or mountain.
* i.e. the silver, several storied building.
THE AGE OF HIGASHIYAMA 1x7
took place at this time, strengthened the relations
with China again, and in so doing especially con-
sidered the financial advantages to themselves.
Among the famous painters of this period, Sesshu,
Kano-Masanobu, and his son Monotobu, deserve
mention. Monotobu was the founder of a school of
which the aim was to make a compromise between
Chinese and Japanese painting.
Chinese porcelain was also again introduced into
Japan at this time ; since its former alliance with
Japan, China had made great progress in that branch
of manufacture. Artistic smith's work also flourished
then in Japan ; a well-known artist of that kind was
Got5 Yuj5.
A new epoch began in architecture, for houses were
built without windows. They had wooden outer walls,
the panels of which could be removed, and were only
fixed in at night ; but in the day-time doors were ar-
ranged made of paper resembling glass which let in
air and light.
Among the poets of the period, the song writers
Fujiwara Kanera and Ota D6kan must be named.
Ota D5kan is one of the few poets of the order of
chivalry.
Learning was confined almost entirely to the Budd-
hist priests ; outside their ranks only the library of
Kanazawa and the school of Ashikaga had any im-
portance.
CHAPTER XI
THE HEROIC AGE (1478-1573)
THE settlement of the war of the Onin years and of
the struggle for the supremacy of Kamakura, brought
Japan no lasting peace. On the contrary, those
struggles only formed the prelude to the bloody
" Hundred Years' War." For the space of a hundred
years, every part of the empire was torn by various
struggles and feuds. It was a time when individual
ability alone decided the issue. He who yesterday
was merely one of the retinue of a great man, was to-
day himself the ruler. It was the heroic age of Japan,
a time of great deeds of brave knights. Four
Emperors reigned during the hundred years' war : Go-
Tsuchimikado-Tenno (1464-1500); Go-Kashiwahara-
Tenno (1500-1526); Go-Nara-Tenn5 (1526-1557);
and Ogimachi-Tenno (1557-1587). EUmngthe period —
the families of the military nobility that had had the
upper hand were almost annihilated, especially the
Ashikaga family which had formerly been in posses-
sion of the Shogunate.
Let us now consider the fate of the central power
during these struggles.
THE HEROIC AGE 119
The Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshitane, was banished by
his Kanrio Hosokawa Masamoto. When a quarrel
arose in the Hosokawa family, Ouchi Yoshioki, a great
noble, who had remained faithful to the Shogun, suc-
ceeded in bringing him back to the capital, and in
deposing the Shogun, Yoshigumi, set up by the
Hosokawa family. Ashikaga Yoshitane remained in
possession of the Sh5gunate for thirteen years while
Ouchi Yoshioki occupied a position in regard to him
similar to that held formerly by the Shogun to the
Emperor.
When after ten years Ouchi Yoshioki retired from
office and returned home, the Hosokawa family again
came into prominence ; it appropriated the office of a
Kanri5 and deposed the Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshitane.
His nephew, Ashikaga Yoshiharu, was now appointed
1 2th Shogun. Under his reign strife once more
broke out in the Hosokawa Kanrio family. Miyoshi
Chokei, one of their vassals, attained great power
during the strife, and became the real leader of the
Kanrio office, and was in regard to the Kanrio, as the
Kanrio to the Shogun and the Shogun to the Em-
peror. Miyoshi Chokei was even able to depose the
Shogun, and make his son, Yoshiteru, Shogun.
After the death of Miyoshi Chokei. his vassal, Mat-
sunaga Hisahide, came into possession of the real
power, so that the noble families were dependent on
their subordinates. Finally Matsunaga Hisahide
murdered the Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiteru, and ap-
pointed his cousin, Ashikaga Yoshihide, Shogun.
After his death Ashikaga Yoshiaki was appointed
iao A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Shogun by Oda Nobunaga, a knight who had at-
tained power through the struggles of the time. The
Shogun tried to acquire independence, and to free
himself from the guardianship of Oda Nobunaga. But
Oda Nobunaga who held the actual power, deposed
him, and sent him into exile. And therewith ended
the Shogunate of the Ashikaga family (1573). For
the next thirty years there was as a rule no Sho-
gunate.
Nevertheless, the imperial family remained in their
old insignificant position. It had suffered as greatly
as the Shogunate in the disorders. ^Already in. the
struggles of the Onin years the central government
had not been able to ensure the regular collection of the
taxes, and the Emperor fell into serious financial diffi-
culties. The imperial palace was not kept in proper
repair, the walls fell down, and the place that had
hitherto been concealed from the sight of the people
like a sanctuary, became accessible to all. As there
was no longer feasting at court, the courtiers and high
dignitaries wandered through the land and sought
employment and shelter with the great nobles. When
Go-Tsuchimikado-Tenno died, his family had not
money enough to bury him, and were obliged to
borrow the necessary funds from the military terri-
torial nobility. His son, Go-Kashiwahara-Tenn5,
could only defray the cost of the ceremonies connected
with his accession by money supplied by the Buddhist
priests. His son, Go-Nara Tenno, likewise, could
only celebrate his accession by means of borrowed
money. In order to provide for his support, he had to
THE HEROIC AGE 121
write songs for pay. As the purchasers might not
look on the Emperor who was naturally worshipped
as a descendant of the gods, they put the money with
the commission behind a curtain of the palace, and
after a while fetched the manuscript away.
The real power of the government was not
in the^capital, but in the country with the heroic
Samurai and the great military lords who had risen
up during the struggles that had destroyed the old
families, and raised up new ones.
One of these upstarts was H6j5 S5un or Ise
Naganji, mentioned above, who had originally been a
vagrant, then had entered the service of a DaimiS, and
finally became an independent general. He con-
quered two provinces, Izu (1491) and Sagami (1495).
His son, Ujitsuna, overthrew the Oyumi Kubo, and
extended the conquests made by his father to the
provinces of Shim5sa, Kazusa and Awa. His son
Ujiyasu overthrew the Koga Kub5 and gained the
provinces of Musashi, Kozuke and Shimozuke.
And so this Hojo family which was not related to
the well-known Shikken Hoj5 family attained
supremacy over wide domains in the plain of KantO.
In the province of Kai, Takeda Shingen dis-
tinguished himself by warlike deeds. He conquered
the whole of the province of which his father had
only possessed small portions, and won for himself
also neighbouring districts. In the province of
Echigo the warlike Uesugi Kenshin ruled ; he pitted
himself against Takeda Shingen, and carried on a
wearisome war, (1553- 1 564). They are both famous
122 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
for the introduction of guns, which had been brought
to Japan by Portuguese merchants in 1543. And
the Japanese soon left off using bows and arrows,
spears and swords. .
In the province of Mutsu, Date Masamune, who
had formerly been the vassal of a Daimio, rose to
power. He lived in the town of Sendai. He is
famous for sending an embassy to Philip III. of
Spain, and to Pope Paul V. in 161 3.
The Togashi family took the ruling place in the
northern provinces. They succumbed, however, in
the Shin-Shu,1 a religious war that broke out among
the Buddhists.
The families Amako, Ouchi and Mori ruled in the
west. Ouchi Yoshitaka reigned in the capital,
Yamaguchi, which at that time also bore the name of
Little Kioto. There, in 1550, Francesco Xavier
founded a Jesuit settlement. Ouchi Yoshitaka
himself embraced Christianity, and worked for its
dissemination. But his efforts were ended by the
hand of a murderer. Mori Motonari avenged the
deed of violence. After the execution of the
murderer, he conquered for himself all the possessions
of the Ouchi family. Later he put down the Amako
family and so became lord of ten provinces.
Chosokabe Motochika was all powerful in the
island of Shikoku, and in that of Kiushu the families
Shimatsu, Otomo, and Riuzoji won supremacy.
Otomo and Riuzoji were Christians and sent
embassies to Rome and Spain.
1 Called also Ikko-Shu.
THE HEROIC AGE 133
In the province of Owari the Oda family rose to
power, and they were destined to have a distinguished
future. As has been said, Oda Nobunaga put an
end to the Ashikaga Shogunate.
Before relating the further changes in the domestic
affairs of Japan through the rise of the Oda family,
we shall survey the relations of Japan at this time
with foreign lands.
CHAPTER XII
RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN LANDS
THE Mongolian dynasty, the victorious advance of
which in China has already been mentioned, reigned
there for about ioo years. It was then driven out by
a Chinese noble family, Shugensho, and from 1368
was again confined to their native Mongolia. The
ShugenshS founded the new dynasty Ming which
reigned till 1 661, the year of the foundation of present
reigning dynasty of China.
Under the leadership of a powerful noble, named
Riseikei, a rebellion broke out at that time in Korea
against the reigning dynasty Ko-ryu (Korai). In
1392, he founded the Chosen (or Chosun) dynasty
known later as Kan, which reigned there until the
annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910.
As we have seen civil wars were then raging in
Japan. It was the period when the imperial family
was divided into the northern and southern dynasties.
The fighting in Japan and the disorders in China and
Korea through the change of dynasty, enabled
pirates to pursue their activities unpunished in the
south-west, and to gain increasing importance.
RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN LANDS 1*5
They built a powerful war fleet and plundered the
coasts of China and Korea. The fleet was well
organised. It had flag-ships for the commanders,
cruisers, light patrol boats and heavy battleships. It
was strengthened by a number of Chinese pirates.
They had a harbour for men of war in the island of
Kiusiu ; the Japanese " inland sea M served as their
headquarters. The governments of China and
Korea were powerless against the pirates. Suddenly
they appeared and plundered the coasts and the
territory situated near the sea, and by the time an army
of the government appeared, they had got off with
rich booty. The Chinese and Koreans called the
dreaded ships butterflies, on account of the long
narrow fluttering flags with which they were
decorated. They were completely masters of the
coasts of China and Korea for more than 200 years,
and their power only became weakened in the reign
of the Emperor of China, Seiso (1 522-1 566).
The first Sh5gun of the Ashikaga family who was
a very zealous Buddhist built a ship in order, for the
good of Buddhism, to enter into regular communica-
tion with China, and to bring over thence Buddhist
books, statues of Buddha and church vessels.
His successors, as we have seen, cultivated relations
with China for financial reasons. The 3rd ShSgun,
Yoshimitsu, signed himself in letters as the faithful
vassal of the Emperor of China, so as to save himself
by his help from financial straits.
When the power of the Ashikaga family waned,
the Ouchi family which ruled in the town of Yama-
126 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
guchi (in the province of Suo), continued commercial
relations with China and became thereby very wealthy.
It was now that the Portugese and Spaniards who
were then masters of the sea and at the zenith of
their power, first came to Japan. In 1543 Portugese
merchants landed on the island of lahegashina, and
were received in friendly fashion by the Daimio.
They rewarded his hospitality with a gun, which was
copied two years afterwards by a Japanese smith, and
then brought into general use in the land under the
name Tanegashina. Six years later, Francesco Xavier
the Spanish Jesuit, landed at Kagoshima in the
province of Satsuma. He spread the knowledge of
Christianity, and gained many converts ; from Kago-
shima he went to the island of Hirato, thence to the
town of Hakata in the province of Chikuzen, and
from there took his way to the town of Yamaguchi
in the province of Suo. Everywhere he preached
Christianity, and soon there were several Christian
churches. He sought the capital, Kioto, with the
intention of converting the Emperor and the Shogun
to his faith. But in consequence of the prevailing
disorder and fighting, he met with no success. The
spread of Christianity was chiefly in the south-west
of Japan. The importance of Portugese and Spanish
influence in Japan at that time is shown by the fact
that until the present day numerous Portugese and
Spanish words have been retained in the Japanese
language, e.g. saraca (a towel), savon (soap), capa
(macintosh cloak), carta (cards), copo (glass), con-
fetos (a cake), canequim (a towel), etc.
PART IV
THE ODA AND TOYOTOMI FAMILIES f r 573
I598]
CHAPTER XIII
ODA NOBUNAGA
We have already stated that after the fall of the
Ashikaga family there was no Shogunate for thirty
years. During that time a concentrated and active
central government was lacking. The man who then
occupied the most powerful position was Oda
Nobunaga, who had destroyed the Ashikaga-Shogun-
ate. He was once more to unite nearly the whole
Empire under his rule without attaining the office of
a Shogun.
The Oda family was descended from the Taira.
Originally they had been vassals of the Kanrio family,
Shiba. Oda Nobuhide, Nobunaga's father, freed his
family from that dependent position, and conquered
a portion of the province of Owari. It should be
noted that he maintained friendly relations with the
imperial family. He placed money at the Emperor's
disposal, and partly repaired the imperial palace.
He was succeeded by his son, Oda Nobunaga, a man
of great talents and high ambition. His first
military feat was the overthrow of the Daimio, Ima-
gawa Yoshimoto, who had already conquered three
9
x3o A HISTORY OF JAPAN
provinces, and was now attempting to destroy the
Oda family. After the battle at Okehazama1 No-
bunaga had him beheaded. The victory founded his
fame throughout the empire. He then allied himself
with Tokugawa Ieyasu who had acquired great power
in the east. After the defeat of the SaitS family, he
erected a strong fortress in the province of Mino and
henceforth resided there.
Some time before, Ogimachi-Tenno had secretly
asked him to restore the authority of the imperial
throne. Ashikaga Yoshiaki, brother of the Shogun
who had shortly before been murdered through the
Matsunaga family, also requested him to take
vengeance on the murderers and to appoint him
Shdgun. In order to have a free hand for this under-
taking, Nobunaga made peace with Takeda Shingen,
the most powerful man in the east, and in 1568
marched south to the capital, Kioto. Soon after his
arrival, he overthrew the Matsunaga and Miyoshi
families and made Ashikaga Yoshiaki Shogun. Then
he had the imperial palace repaired and instituted a
fixed annual income for the Emperor ; he also re-
established the court ceremonials which in consequence
of the Emperor's poverty had been in abeyance.
Later he was victorious over the Asai and Asakura
families at the Anegawa.2 He burnt the temple of
Enriakuji which gave shelter to an army of priests,
and thus put an end to the arrogance of the power-
1 Hazama= narrow valley.
9 Kawa or Gawa=river,
ODA NOBUNAGA 131
ful Buddhist priests who for five hundred years had
recognised no authority over them, and had continu-
ally pillaged the land. In order to diminish the
secular power of the Buddhist priests, he supported
Christianity to which he was himself soon converted.
Ashikaga Yoshiaki whom he had appointed
Shogun was jealous of the growing fame of Nobunaga
and thought how he might overthrow him. But Oda
Nobunaga got wind of his plans, and sent him into
exile, and thus ended the Shogunate of the Ashikaga
family (1573)-
A few years later, in 1576, Nobunaga built a strong
fortress, seven stories high, called Tenshu, in the
province of Omi, on the Biwako.1 Others soon
imitated him, and before long all the greater Daimios
possessed similar fortresses.
But Nobunaga had not yet attained his goal : the
conquest of the whole empire. The Mori family
which had acquired great power in the south-west
and owned there 10 provinces especially offered
resistance. Nobunaga believed he could reduce
them to obedience, and sent his general Toyotomi
Hideyoshi against them with a large army, while he
himself marched to the east in order to overcome the
Takeda family. Hideyoshi was not equal to his
task. He tried in vain to take the fortress Takamatsu.
He asked Nobunaga for auxiliaries. Nobunaga had
been successful, and having destroyed the Takeda,
determined to go himself to Toyotomi's assistance
1 Ko = lake,
jS« A HISTORY OF JAPAN
with his whole army. On the way to the seat of
war, he spent the night in the temple of HonnSji in
the capital, Kioto ; he was there attacked by one of
his officers, Akechi Mitsuhide. He had been ordered
to convey troops to Toyotomi, and thought it was an
opportunity to avenge an insult once received by him
from Nobunaga. Deprived of all hope of rescue,
Nobunaga set fire to the temple, and then killed
himself, and his eldest son followed his example.
Thus perished this brave and wise man, at the age of
48, when he was just on the point of uniting the whole
Empire under his rule (1582).
His death was lamented by his people, but the
Buddhist priests rejoiced and declared that his tragic
end was Buddha's punishment for his desertion of
the ancient faith.
But what Oda Nobunaga had accomplished was
not wholly in vain. What he had begun was carried
on by his chief officer, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who was
now the most powerful man in the Empire.
CHAPTER XIV
THE CONQUEST AND UNION OF THE WHOLE EMPIRE
BY TOYOTOMI-HIDEYOSHI
Like so many great men of that time Toyotomi-
Hideyoshi ' was of lowly birth. His father had been
a poor peasant. When a boy of fifteen he had
volunteered for the service of Oda Nobunaga who,
with his keen insight into character, soon recognised
his talents and made him a soldier and gradually
advanced him to the post of chief officer.
Hideyoshi received the news of his master's death
when he lay before Takamatsu, the fortress of the
M5ri family. He did not divulge the news, and
concluded a favourable peace with the Mori family.
Then he went against Nobunaga's murderer and
defeated him at the battle of Yamazaki.2 Nobunaga's
family lived in the castle of Atsuchi, and after the
victory negociations took place there between him,
the family and the chief vassals, concerning the
succession. He effected that the right of primo-
1 His original name was Hiyoshimaru. He received the
family name Toyotomi later from the Emperor.
1 Yama » mountain .
i34 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
geniture which was firmly rooted in Japan should be
adhered to, and that Nobunaga's year old grandson,
son of the eldest son who had died with him, should
be named successor ; the grown up sons of Nobunaga
were passed over. Hideyoshi himself undertook the
guardianship of the young heir during his minority.
His powerful position evoked fear and envy, and
rebellions soon broke out.
The two most powerful vassals of the Oda family,
Shibata Katsuie and Takigawa Katsumasu, first
allied themselves against him, and they were joined
by Nobunaga's third son. Hideyoshi defeated
Shibata Katsuie in the battle of Shizugadake1 (1583),
and pursued him to his castle where he killed him-
self. Nobunaga's son also killed himself after the
battle. Takigawa Katsumasu later surrendered.
Next year, Nabunaga's second son rebelled against
Hideyoshi. He was supported in this rising by
Tokugawa Ieyasu who with Oda was the most
powerful Daimio. The two armies pitched their
camps near Komakiyama.2 They lay opposite each
other for six months without hazarding a decisive
battle. There were merely small skirmishes in which
Ieyasu had the upper hand. Each of the two
generals, Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu fully
recognised the ability and strength of the other.
They became more and more convinced that a
decisive battle between them would ruin them both,
1 Dake = mountain.
9 Yama = mountain .
CONQUEST AND UNION OF THE EMPIRE 135
while allied, they might gain the whole Empire. So
a truce was made which soon developed into a
friendly alliance, and Hideyoshi adopted Ieyasu's
eldest son. Ieyasu subordinated himself to Hideyoshi
who treated him always as if he had full equal rights.
Each supported the other in all enterprises.
Hideyoshi defeated one after the other, Chdsokabe
Motochika, lord of the island of Shikoku, Sassa Nari-
masa, a Daimio in the north of the empire and Shim-
atsu Yoshihisa, a Daimio of the island of Kiusiu.
Finally he destroyed Odawara, the stronghold of the
Hojo family where they had dwelt for about a hun-
dred years, utterly defeated the family, and took from
them the eight provinces of the plain of Kanto that
had submitted to them. Thus he ruled the whole of
the Japanese Empire (1590).
Hideyoshi had already built himself a splendid
palace in the capital. He now had strong fortresses
erected at the port of Osaka, and at Fushimi near
Kioto, The Emperor, who joyfully welcomed the
union of the Empire, loaded him with honours and
visited him in his palace. Hideyoshi became Kam-
baku, an office formerly held by the Fujiwara, and
Dajddaijin (first chancellor). He could not attain
the ardently desired office of Shogun, because he was
not of noble birth. But that did not injure his
powerful position which he tried to strengthen by
a new organisation of government. He appointed 5
Bugio who were responsible to him alone, and the
old imperial ministers were as unimportant as ever.
He had the whole country surveyed, and instituted
136 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
new taxes. For the first time after more than 600
years gold and silver coins were minted. Under
Hideyoshi's strong hand, order prevailed in the
land which had been in a state of anarchy for more
than a century.
CHAPTER XV
TOYOTOMI-HIDEYOSHl'S FOREIGN ENTERPRISES
WHEN Hideyoshi found himself the undisputed ruler
of the whole Japanese Empire, he made plans for the
conquest of neighbouring lands. The desire for con-
quest and bold enterprises corresponded to the de-
sire for fame and adventure that prevailed at the
time. And memories of the pirates' bold deeds whose
power had died out, and intercourse with Europeans
encouraged men to look beyond their fatherland.
Embassies were sent to Formosa, the Philippines
and India to persuade those countries to recognise
Japan's supremacy, and everything was prepared for
a campaign against China with a view to the con-
quest of that land. Hideyoshi invited the king of
Korea to join him with his army and to act as his
guide. The king preferred the supremacy of China,
and refused the invitation. Therefore the conquest
of Korea became the first objective.
In order to be able to devote himself solely to that
enterprise, Hideyoshi transferred the government of
Japan to Hidetsugu's nephew whom he had adopted,
and made him Kambaku. He himself abdicated, and
1 38 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
thenceforth bore the title of Taig5, conferred on a
Kambaku who had abdicated.
A large army was assembled in the neighbourhood
of the port of Nagoya in the province of Hizen on
the island of Kiusiu. The land troops and the garis-
son of the fleet comprised together 160,000 men.
They went over to Korea from Nagoya. Hideyoshi
remained behind with the reserve.
Ukida Hideie was in command of the whole army,
Konishi Yoshinaga and Kato Kiyomasa commanded
the invading army. The troops under them fought the
hostile forces "as easily as bamboos are split," and 20
days after their landing, they marched in triumph into
the capital, Seoul. The Kingof Korea fled to the north-
west, to the Chinese frontier, and asked help of the
Emperor of China. Konishi pursued him and took
the old capital, Phyong-yang. Kato pursued the two
royal princes who had fled to the north-east frontier,
and took them both prisoners at Ham-gyung.
The Emperor of China sent a large army under
Soshokun to the king's assistance. But it, too, was
speedily conquered by Konishi, and only a few strag-
glers returned to their native land. A second Chinese
army under the command of Yi-yu-Song (Rijiosho)
fought at first with real success, and even won a
victory over Konishi. But when it attempted to re-
gain the capital, Seoul, the Japanese general Kobaya-
kawa Takakage utterly routed it at Hekiteikan.
After this victory of the Japanese, the Chinese
ambassador Shinikei entered into negotiations with
Konishi, and he and the Korean ambassador went to
FOREIGN ENTERPRISES 139
Hideyoshi's court where they agreed to the follow-
ing preliminary treaty : Japan was to receive half of
Korea ; a Japanese prince was to marry a Chinese
princess, and henceforth there was to be friendly
alliance between China and Japan. The two Korean
princes were to be set at liberty. But the Chinese
envoy did not communicate the articles of the treaty
to his Emperor, who after a while sent an embassy to
Hideyos"hi to make him King of Japan under Chinese
supremacy. When the envoy told his message to
Hideyoshi, he was exceedingly angry, and prepared
a new army to fight against Korea and China.
It landed in Korea in 1596. The campaign led to
the famous battles on the mountain of Ulsan, and the
brilliant victory of the Japanese at Shi-sen. Kato
Kiyomasa, the Japanese general, was besieged by a
Chinese army on the mountain of Ulsan. The Jap-
anese suffered terribly from cold and hunger, but
notwithstanding they were the victors in the end.
The Japanese fleet, too, defeated the Koreans. Un-
fortunately in 1598 Hideyoshi died. The Japanese
army returned home, and these battles which had
exacted the greatest sacrifices in life and property
during six years, were absolutely unproductive for
Japan.
CHAPTER XVI
THE DECISIVE BATTLE BETWEEN THE TOYOTOMI
AND TOKUGAWA FAMILIES. VICTORY OF THE
TOKUGAWA FAMILY.
The death of Hideyoshi was naturally of great
importance for the relations between the Toyotomi
and the Tokugawa families. The good understanding
that had existed between them during these last years
came to an end.
The Tokugawa family was descended from Mina-
moto ; for many generations they had lived in the
province of Mikawa where they had been helpful to
the Imagawa family. When the Imagawa were over-
thrown by Oda Nobunaga, Tokugawa Ieyasu made
his family independent, and allied himself with Oda
Nobunaga who soon placed great trust in him. At
Nobunaga's death Ieyasu already owned 5 provinces.
We have seen how war broke out between him and
Hideyoshi and how he made peace with him on
account of his power and wisdom. When by the
overthrow of the Hojo family, Hideyoshi gained 8
provinces in the plain of Kanto, he presented those
to him in place of his former possessions. Tokugawa
VICTORY OF THE TOKUGAWA FAMILY 141
Ieyasu resided at Edo, now TokiS. The fame of
his virtues increased from day to day.
Shortly before Hideyoshi's death one of the 5
treasurers named Maeda Toshiie was appointed
guardian of his son who was a minor. But he only
held the post for a short time. After his death
Tokugawa Ieyasu was the real head of the government.
Vassals of the Toyotomi family like Ishida Mitsu-
nari and others, were jealous of the growing power
of the Tokugawa, and feared that they would once
again outshine them and the Toyotomi family. They
secretly collected together those minded like themselves
and hatched a conspiracy. In 1600 Uesugi Kagekatsu,
one of the leaders of the conspiracy, struck the first
blow in his native place — Aizu — where he had
assembled an army. Tokugawa left one of his officers
at Kioto with a garrison, and proceeded himself with
his sons and a large army against the rebels. But on
the way he received the news that the vassals of the
Toyotomi family had risen in his rear at Osaka, and
that the general, Ishida Mitsunari, one of their
adherents, was on the point of taking Kioto. He
gave the leadership of the campaign against Uesugi
Kagekatsu to his son, and with a portion of the troops
hastened himself to the capital. Ishida Mitsunari
opposed him with the whole of his army in the plain
of Sekigahara. The adherents of the Toyotomi
family numbered about 130,000 men, and Tokugawa
Ieyasu's army 75,000. A battle ensued in which*
both sides fought with great animosity. The result
of the strife was that one of the leaders of the Toyotomi
x42 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
deserted in the midst of the struggle, and delivered
the camp that he commanded to Tokugawa Ieyasu,
and with all his forces turned against the Toyotomi.
The battle ended in the utter rout of the Toyotomi
and Ishida Mitsunari. The latter fled but was
captured and killed. Uesugi Kagekatsu soon sur-
rendered. The Toyotomi became the vassals of the
Tokugawa ; only three provinces remained to them.
Tokugawa Ieyasu's heart's desire, that his family
should again hold the Shogunate, was fulfilled.
PART V
THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE
TOKUGAWA lEYASD
Pace p. 145]
CHAPTER XVII
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE
AFTER the defeat of the Toyotomi the Emperor
favoured the victorious Tokugawa Ieyasu. He con-
ferred on him several titles of honour, recognised his
descent from the Minamoto, and appointed him
Shogun (1603). Ieyasu made Yedo — the present
Toki5 — his capital and began the internal organization
of his newly established rule with the enlargement of
the city.
His chief exertions were directed to ensure the
lasting possession of the Shogunate to his family.
Therefore he very soon abdicated in favour of his
son Hidetada, and made him Shogun (1605).
But he did not feel confident of the lasting supre-
macy of his family, so long as the Toyotomi were in
possession of considerable power, and he sought for
an opportunity to accomplish their destruction.
Shortly before his death he attained his desire.
In 1614 he began the war on a trivial pretext. Of
the faithful adherents who took up arms for the
Toyotomi, Ono Harunaga deserves special mention.
Ieyasu and his son, the Shogun, marched with a large
10
i46 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
army against the fortress of the Toyotomi at Osaka.
Many fierce battles were fought round the stronghold
which successfully kept off the enemy's attack.
Therefore Ieyasu felt compelled to sue for peace,
but with no honourable intention. He was only
waiting for the summer in order to begin the war
afresh. Accompanied by his son, he again marched
with a large army to Osaka, and surprised the
garrison. A final fierce struggle ended in the taking
of the place by storm. Hideyori, Hideyoshi's son
and his mother killed themselves. The victors burnt
the fortress to the ground. So ended the Toyotomi
family. Tokugawa Ieyasu attained his desire.
The supremacy of his family was assured by the
destruction of the Toyotomi, and peace was restored
to the land which for more than 200 years had been
a prey to incessant wars. For the next 200 years
the state both at home and abroad was entirely free
from strife.
At the end of his life Ieyasu issued a law concerning
the knights containing 13 articles which set forth
their position and their duties, and also a decree with
17 articles dealing with court life, and regulating with
great detail the court ceremonials, the education and
life of the princes, and the duties of the officials of the
court1
1 The so-called 100 laws of Ieyasu do not emanate from him.
They were the work of Yoshemune, the 8th Shogun, who in
order to lend them a higher authority declared that they had
already been written down by Ieyasu, but that he had not
proclaimed them.
THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE 147
The internal organization of the Tokugawa
Shogunate was not finished by Ieyasu. It was only
actually settled under Iemitsu, the 3rd Shogun.
It was essentially more complicated than that of
the former Shogunates. At the head of the whole
administration stood the Tairo, the Grand Treasurer,
the highest official under the Shogun. Below him
came the board of the 5 R5chu, the treasurers.
They controlled the imperial court officials and Daimio.
Below the Board of the Rochu was the Board of the
Wakadoshiyori ' the lesser treasurers, comprising from
3 to 5 persons. They had control over the knights.
The three departments held regular meetings together
under the presidency of the Tairo. Under them
again were the three Bugio in whose hands were the
administration of finance, the municipal government
of Yedo, and the control of the Buddhist and Shinto
temples. The three highest departments of the
Kioto-Shoshidai and the rest of the Bugio came
below them again. They were : the Machi Bugio of
Kioto (imperial capital), of Osaka (an important port,
and formerly the residence of the Toyotomi family),
and of Sumpu (residence of the first Shogun who had
abdicated) and the Bugio of Nagasaki and Sakai (chief
towns for foreign trade), of Yamada (town of the
celebrated temple of Amaterasu-Omikami), of Nara
(formerly the imperial capital), of Nikko (where the 3rd
Shogun built a temple to Ieyasu in which he enj eye
divine honours) etc.
1Waka = young, Toshiyori or Doshiyori = Rochu.
148 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Ieyasu reformed the feudal system in a wise and
thorough fashion.
The existing Daimios, over 260 in number, were
divided into three classes. The first formed the
Shim pan : they were feudal princes who were related
to the Shogun. The second class formed the Fudai,
feudal princes who held their lands as fiefs from the
Shogun. The third class was the Tozama, feudal
princes who were brought into subjection by the
Shogunate.
The last class were in the majority. In order to
protect himself for ever from their rebellions, Ieyasu
settled the Shimpan in the most important districts,
e.g. his sons received extensive territories in the
provinces adjacent to the two capitals. He always
placed the Fudai near the Toyama so that they might
act as a guard to the latter, keep them apart, and render
rebellion futile. When a noble family became extinct
he took possession of their territory as vacant lands.
Later Iemitsu enacted the harsh revolutionary
law that the wife and family of every Daimio must
live permanently in the town of Yedo, where they
served the Shogunate as hostages. And each Daimio
had to spend every other year in Yedo with a fixed
number of his Samurai. The sojourn there, especially
as they had to defray the expenses of their companions
was extremely costly for the Daimio, and led to their
impoverishment, a result desired by the Shogunate
in order to preserve peace in the land.
Ieyasu tried to preserve friendly relations with the
imperial family. He settled a fixed income on the
THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE 149
Emperor of 10,000 Koku of rice.1 He and his
successors paid him all possible honour, but at the
same time took care that he should not acquire any
actual power. As has already been said, they
appointed a Shoshidai for Kioto whose duty it was
always to watch over the imperial family. The
2nd Shogun, Hidetada, married his daughter to
Gomitsunoo-Tenno. She bore him a daughter who
succeeded to the throne as Empress, since Gomitsunoo-
Tenno disliked the manner in which the Shogun
oppressed him, and abdicated. The accession of a
princess was very rare in Japan. It had not happened
for more than 860 years, and now only through the
distinguished position of the Tokugawa family
which became of still greater importance during the
reign of this princess of their blood.
1 About 44 gallons.
CHAPTER XVIII
BUSHIDO
The establishment of the Tokugawa Sh5gunate
marks the zenith of the feudal age. We have to
survey a period the history of which is almost only
the history of the Buke class, of the great military
families of the DAimiS and their vassals, the Samurai.
The supremacy of that class is most clearly seen in
the political organization now introduced by the
Tokugawa and which procured a long period of peace,
and in the laws which they decreed and administered.
In name the Emperor and the Kuge, the nobility
who were his inferiors, still continued to hold a
lofty and divine position. But in reality they had
no influence in political affairs, were of no importance
at all, and spent their lives in strict seclusion.
The people at this time occupied a very subordinate
position. All the land, and all the towns belonged
to the Shogun and the DaimiSs. The peasants had
to rent the land from them and to pay heavy tribute
out of their produce. The inhabitants of the towns,
the artisans and merchants, held a still lower place.
Neither the peasants nor the townsfolk were
Imperial Official (Kuge)
In Court Dress
[Face p. 15d
BUSHIDO 151
bondsmen or serfs, but they had very few privileges
and very little liberty.
This is the age of the Buke.
In the course of the last centuries so fertile in
great struggles and heroic deeds of chivalry, the
ruling class of knights was distinguished by its own
special code of morals and practical outlook on life,
and had evolved a system of ethics of its own known
by the term "Bushido."1
Bushido demanded sincerity and truthfulness from
the Samurai. Treacherous actions and crooked ways,
lies and duplicity were reckoned a great disgrace.
The word of a Samurai was so highly esteemed, that
a written promise was held to be unworthy of him.
The Bushi was trained from earliest youth to be
courageous, and to endure pain, privation and hard-
ship. The nurse related to the child the great deeds
of his ancestors. At night the youth had to visit
gloomy spots, places of execution, churchyards, etc.,
in order to prove his fearlessness. In times of peace,
tournaments and jousts in which he could demonstrate
his courage formed the chief employment of a Bushi.
To yield his life on the field of battle was regarded as
supreme happiness and honour.
The knight was not allowed to betray in his face joy,
sorrow, or any kind of emotion. It was considered
to be incompatible with the absolute self-control that
was required of him. To shed tears was reckoned a
1 i.e. way of the Bushi, the knights. Cf. Professor Nitobe's
admirable book " Bushido, the soul of Japan," Tokio, 1905.
152 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
disgrace. He might not also give expression to his
feelings in words, a relief permitted only to poets.
The Bushi must not embrace his son in the presence
of others, nor kiss his wife. The self-control of the
knight is best illustrated by the curious method of
suicide among the Japanese.
The suicide of a knight — Harakiri, also called
Seppuku and Kappuku — consisted in ripping up the
stomach. To kill himself in any other way was dis-
graceful and unworthy of a knight. A man could
only honourably put an end to his life in this painful
manner. A knight could even redeem his tarnished
honour by Harakiri.
The knight showed absolute equanimity when
inflicting on himself this terrible kind of self-murder.
As witnessed by European eyes, he grasped his
dagger with his left hand without the slightest sign of
excitement, drove it in below the navel, on the left
side, without changing a muscle of his face, drew it
along to the right side, turned it in the wound and
made a cut upwards. During the time of the
Tokugawas, Harakiri was also used as a punishment.
It was considered a great favour if anyone, instead of
being executed, was condemned to so honourable a
death. Harakiri was a solemn, ceremonial act,
executed in the presence of witnesses.
But the knight did not only practice these severe
virtues, Bushido taught him to develop the softer
stirrings of his heart.
To love and honour his parents was one of the
highest duties of the knight. The Bushi must
Samurai and His Servant
THE STIRRUP CUP
[Face p. 152
BUSHIDO 153
always be just and fight for the cause of justice. The
greatest bravery counted as nothing if the cause wa~
a bad one, The Bushi must have compassion o ft
the weak, the oppressed, and the conquered ; it wa^
considered a great disgrace for a warrior to enter into
an unequal contest with a younger or weaker
adversary and overthrow him.
Above all the knight must be distinguished from
an ordinary man by his politeness and refined
conduct. He was bound by strict social rules in his
intercourse with his fellows which assured the out-
ward expression of sympathetic consideration for the
feelings of others. Later, politeness and courtesy
came to be regarded by foreigners as a typical Japanese
trait. A refined and thorough system of etiquette
was practised in knightly circles. The greatest care
was taken to learn and to teach how to bow, to walk
and sit. Behaviour at meals was a science ; tea-
drinking was a real ceremonial. The essential quality
of the etiquette is expressed in the following sentences
by one of its leading spirits : This is the aim of all
etiquette : you must learn to demean yourself in such
a way that the roughest rascal would not dare to
attack your person even if you sit still."
The highest duty of the Samurai was loyalty to
his master. He must be ready to give his life for
him at any moment. He must even sacrifice the lives
of his children for his master's sake.
But it is not to be thought that the relation of the
Samurai to the Daimio was that of a slave to a tyrant.
The master was under equal obligation to keep faith
154 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
with his Samurai, and to care for him as for himself.
He was in the position of a father of a family. The
obedience of the Samurai was voluntary, not com-
pulsory. It was an unknightly act for a Samurai to
execute any order of his lord that did not correspond
with his conviction. In such cases he had to warn his
master, and try to persuade him. To act against his
conscience was not in accordance with the teaching
of Bushido. If the loyalty of a Samurai to his
master conflicted with his conscience, his only
resource was to commit suicide.
The consciousness of the personal dignity and
worth of the Samurai rested on all these virtues, on
them rested his honour. Honour was the most
valuable possession of the Samurai, and he would
joyfully give his life for it. If he injured his honour,
he forfeited his existence as a Bushi. Harakiri
offered the only means of retrieving his honour.
Apart from Harakiri, the code c/f honour of the
Japanese knight differs most from that of European
chivalry in regard to the position of women.
Women held a lower position in Japanese than in
European chivalry. While to defend the honour of
a woman, to reverence her womanly virtues, and to
cultivate purely feminine qualities in her were essential
elements in European chivalry, in Japan the woman
was trained in warlike courage. She, too, had to
learn to control her feelings, to harden her nerves, and
to use arms. She learned to swing the Naginata, the
long-handled sword, and from early youth was
always armed with a dagger (Kai-ken). It was
Samurai in Ceremonial Dress
(Pace p. 154
Knights Exercising
Face p. 155]
BUSHIDO 155
considered that this warlike education better enabled
a woman to bring up her children to be brave.
This system of ethics soon spread beyond the
class of the Buke, and penetrated through the whole
nation. Bushido was the code of honour for all
educated Japanese.
The spirit of chivalry and the general culture of
the feudal period were of great importance for the
future of the Japanese people. It is chiefly due to
them that the Japanese were able, later, so quickly
to take a place on a level with the rest of the
civilized world.
CHAPTER XIX
RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES
When Tokugawa Ieyasu had firmly established his
supremacy over the whole Japanese empire, he did
not, like Toyotomi Hideyoshi, think of foreign con-
quest ; he confined himself to depriving the king of
Riukiu of the supremacy he exercised over several
small islands in the south of Japan. Otherwise he
took care to live in peace with his neighbours, and
to encourage commercial relations with them. He
brought about a peace between the Daimio of the
island of Tsushima situated near Korea, and Korea,
and restored trade with that country. The relations
of the two governments were friendly. When a new
Shogun succeeded, the king of Korea sent an em-
bassy to Yedo to offer his congratulations. Ieyasu
also sought to set up friendly relations with the
Chinese government, but it did not make a ready
response, yet all the same, active commercial inter-
course arose between Chinese and Japanese
merchants.
At this time, too, the Dutch and English first came
into contact with Japan ; Portugese and Spaniards
Korean Embassy
V
FOREIGN RELATIONS 157
were the only Europeans who had before visited
Japan. In 1600 a Dutch ship was driven by
contrary winds to Japan. Among others on board
were the Dutchman Jan Josten and the Englishman
William Adams. Ieyasu gave them a kind reception
in Yedo, asked for information about Europe, and
kept them at court as advisers. The name of a
street in Tokio keeps alive their memory to this day.
In 1609 a Dutch embassy arrived and with the
ShSgun effected the establishment in the name of
the Dutch government of regular trade between the
two countries, and received permission to build a
factory on the island of Hirato. In 161 3 the
English came, and they also were allowed to build
a factory at Hirato. But they found the Dutch
competition too strong for them, and soon withdrew^
especially as they had discovered a richer field of
action in India.
Under the guidance of William Adams, the
Japanese learned to build ships in the European
manner, and undertook voyages to foreign lands.
There arose regular lines of ships to Amakawa, now
Makao in China, to Annan, Java, the Philippines,
India, etc. In 1610 Japan sent the first ship to
Mexico (Nova Hispania), and it soon became usual
for Japanese ships to sail the Pacific Ocean.
Motives of religion also took Japanese ships to
Europe at this period. Already in 1582 (the 10th
Tensho year) the Daimi5s of Omura, Arima, and
Otomo fitted out a ship which sailed through the
Indian Ocean and round the Cape of Good Hope to
158 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Spain where these Japanese Catholics paid a visit
to Philip II. From Spain they went to Rome and
visited the Pope. It was 8 years before they re-
turned to their homes. In 1613 the Christian
Samurai, Hasekura Tsunenaga and 6 companions,
was sent by his master, Date Masamune, on a
voyage to Europe. Contrary to the earlier embassy
he sailed over the Pacific Ocean, visited the Governor
of Mexico, and then sailed round South America,
and across the Atlantic to Spain and Rome. He
returned to Japan in the 7th year.
The merchant service was at this time under
the charge and protection of the Shogunate. Every
merchant vessel had to carry a certificate of per-
mission from the Shogunate. They were called
■Toshuinsen1 after the certificate.
The love of adventure of the Japanese knights was
stirred by long voyages to distant lands, and there
are many stories of heroic deeds performed by
Japanese adventurers in foreign countries at this
time.
Yamada Nagamasa, a knight of the province of
Suruga, went to Siam, where already about 8,000
Japanese merchants were living, entered the service
of the king, and became commander-in-chief of
the Siamese army. On behalf of his master, he
conquered a large part of eastern India for the
Siamese kingdom. The king gave him his daughter
in marriage, and presented him as a fief with a part
1 Sen = ship, Shuin = red stamp, Go = sign of politeness.
FOREIGN RELATIONS 159
of his kingdom. When the king died, leaving a son
who was a minor, Yamada Nagamasa became
guardian for his brother-in-law, the young king, and
as such ruled over the whole kingdom. But the
Siamese hated him because he was a foreigner, and
poisoned him.
A Ronin, l Hamada Yahei, went with his brothers,
and his son and a few Samurai to Formosa in order
to take vengeance on the Dutch governor who had
continually attacked and plundered Japanese ships.
They disguised themselves as peasants and landed,
behaving as if they intended to settle there as
colonists. They surprised the governor's palace,
took him prisoner, seized the valuable treasures, and
returned with them to their native land.
Teiseiko accomplished daring deeds in foreign
lands, and was the hero of many adventures ; his
mother was Japanese, his father Chinese. He went
to China when the Manchurians made their
momentous attack, and the former Chinese imperial
family of Ming was overthrown by the Manchurian
dynasty of Tsching which still reigns in China. He
put himself at the head of the Chinese party of
opposition to the new dynasty, and gathered a large
number of Chinese troops round him, and from time
to time obtained much success. He brought the
whole of the country south of the Yang-tse-Kiang
into his power, but finally he was compelled to leave
China chiefly because the government of the
Shogunate left him without help. He went to the
1 A Samurai who had lost his master.
160 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
island of Formosa, expelled the Dutch and made
himself king. After his death, he was succeeded by
his son and his grandson, and his family governed
the island for more than 30 years. But in 1683 his
grandson succumbed to a Chinese attack.
In consequence of the missionary efforts of the
Jesuits active relations between Japan and foreign
lands did not last long.
CHAPTER XX
SPREAD AND SUPPRESSION OF
CHRISTIANITY
The coming of Francesco Xavier to Japan in 1549
resulted in a continuous activity of the Roman
Catholic missionaries. Oda Nobunaga, especially,
furthered the spread of Christianity. He built a
church at Kioto which quickly became important
and was soon recognized as the principal church of
the Japanese Christians. It was called Nan Banji.
From that time the new faith spread quickly
through the provinces adjacent to the capital.
Many of the Daimios became Christians, and assumed
Christian names. The Dominicans, Augustinians,
and Franciscans, following the example set by the
Jesuits, founded settlements in different parts of the
Empire, and carried on their missionary work with
great zeal. According to one account the Christians
increased to half a million, according to another, even
to a million and a half.
But a thorough set back soon occurred.
The Daimios, whom the Jesuits had converted to
1 Nan=southerly, Ban=barbarians, Ji=church.
11
162 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
their faith, became infected with the spirit of the
inquisition and began to persecute those of their
vassals who refused to become Christians. And
therefore they aroused the hatred* of the tolerant
Japanese people. It seemed almost certain that the
Jesuits had it in mind to bring the Japanese Empire
under Spanish rule. In any case they awoke the
suspicion of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and particularly of
the far-sighted Tokugawa Ieyasu, who forbade the
farther spread of Christianity.
But the active commercial relations of Japan with
Europe rendered it easy for the Jesuits, in spite of
the prohibition, to enter the country disguised as
merchants and prosecute their activities. Therefore
Hidetata, Ieyasu's successor, decided that all prose-
lytizers should be put to death.
Iemitsu, the 3rd Shogun, finally forbade all
commercial intercourse with foreign lands. Portu-
gese merchants were banished for ever. Only the
Dutch who carried on no missionary work and were
known to be enemies of the Jesuits, were permitted
to continue trading. Great cruelty was practised
towards the native Christians. They were crucified,
burnt, starved, or executed in other sorts of cruel
ways by thousands.
The rebellion of the Christians on the island of
Amakusa in 1637 was connected with these
measures of the government. Masuda Tokisada
whose father had been a deadly foe of the Tokugawa
family, was the leader of the rising. Masuda
Tokisada shared his father's feelings, and at the
Jesuits in Japan
SUPPRESSION OF CHRISTIANITY 163
same time cherished the ambition of making himself
an independent prince over a larger part of the
Empire. In order to gain the people's support, he,
by means of all sorts of cunning devices and miracles
which he had learned from the Europeans, gave
himself out as God, and was supported by the
Christians whom he instigated to rise against the
hostile Shogunate. He soon conquered the whole
island of Amakusa, allied himself with the inhabitants
of the peninsula of Shimabara, murdered its governor
and with 37,000 men occupied the fortress of Hara.
The Shogunate sent an army against him under
General Itakura Shigemasa. He was unsuccessful,
fell later into disfavour, and sought and found death
in battle. His successor, Matsudaira Nobutsuna,
subdued the rebellious province. Masuda Tokisada
was executed, and a terrible massacre of the
Christians took place.
After this war, the government took thorough
means to prevent the revival of Christianity in the
land. Large rewards were publicly offered every-
where for the denunciation of a Christian. The
authorities in town and country were ordered to use
all possible means of tracking out Christians. If a
Christian was seized, two courses were open to him :
to return to Buddhism or to die. To the end of the
Tokugawa Shogunate there was a decree in all
districts suspected of Christianity that every new
born child must, within a fixed period after his birth,
trample upon a crucifix. Intercourse with Europe
was strictly forbidden. European books were not
1 64 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
allowed to be introduced into the land. All the
ports were closed. But Nagasaki remained open to
the Dutch.
The government made great sacrifices in order to
prevent the Christianizing of the country. They sacri-
ficed in most cruel fashion the lives of many subjects,
and renounced the advantages accruing from their
flourishing trade with foreign lands. They were not
actuated by intolerance or by hatred of the foreigner,
but believed that they owed these sacrifices to the in-
terests of the state. And in fact it was a matter of
the greatest importance for the political life and the
civilization of Japan. How different would have been
its future if the Jesuits had won over the whole land
to Catholicism, and similarly the Christianizing of
.Japan would have reacted on European affairs.
CHAPTER XXI
THE REIGNS OF IEYASU'S SUCCESSORS. FLOURISHING
STATE OF ART AND LEARNING. BEGINNING OF
ECONOMIC PROGRESS
Ieyasu's son and grandson were worthy of their pre-
decessor. They were capable rulers and completed
the administrative reforms begun by Ieyasu. The
government of the 4th Shogun was also at first
very successful, for he had an excellent treasurer.
That he, himself, however, was a weak ruler, became
evident after the deaths of his trusty counsellors, Mat-
sudaira Nobutsune and Abe Tadaaki. The 5th
Sh5gun, Tsunayoshi ( 168 1- 1709), brother of the 4th
Shogun, showed little interest in or understanding of
the task of administration, but he was distinguished
for his learning, and promoted art and science.
Under Ieyasu's rule the teaching of Confucius had
undergone a revival. His adviser, Hayashi Doshun,
was a zealous advocate of it. Under Tsunayoshi, the
fifth Shogun, Nobuatsu, Hayashi Doshun's grandson,
was appointed Daigaku-no-kami,1 with the statement
1 i.e. Director of the University of Yedo which bears the
name Daigaku.
1 66 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
that the office should become hereditary in his family.
So the Daigaku became the headquarters of Confucian-
ism, and produced many famous men. The Con-
fucians were divided into three different schools, the
heads of which were respectively Hayashi Daigaku-
no-kami, Nakae Toju and It5 Jinsai.
Science and literature flourished among the fol-
lowers of Confucius, and were honoured and promoted
under the Tokugawa Shogunate. Keichu, a Buddhist
priest, occupied himself with classical Japanese litera-
ture; Kitamura Kigin studied mediaeval Japanese
writings and the Japanese script, and wrote com-
mentaries on Japanese literary works. These studies
were the forerunner of a gieat revival of the classical
literature of Japan which was to take a large part in
the intellectual and political reorganization of the
Japanese nation.
The feudal prince of Mito, son of Ieyashu's
youngest son, wrote his " Dainihonshi," i.e., a history
of great Japan ; it begins with the time of the first
Emperor and goes up to Go-Daigo-Tenno, the 96th
Emperor, and explains the Japanese forms of govern-
ment. The work awoke an historical sense, and is, as
we shall see, the origin of the movement for restoring
the power of the Emperor.
Chikamatsu Monzaimon was a celebrated dramatist
of this time. Among the song writers, Matsuo Basho
was most prominent, and he introduced a new metre
of lines of seventeen feet into the literature. During
the long period of peace, the artistic and serene tem-
perament of the Japanese came more to the front.
IEYASU'S SUCCESSORS 167
Great care was given to fine clothes, beautiful utensils
and valuable jewellery. New kinds of amusement
were introduced. The Japanese opera N5 came into
being, the Japanese Cabaret, Joruri, and the Japanese
theatre, Shibai.
Painting flourished exceedingly. Kano Tanniu,
Tosa Mitsuoki, Iwasa Matabei and Hishikawa Moro-
nobu were among the celebrated painters ; the two
last founded a new school, the Ukiyoe, who took the
proceedings of daily life for the subjects of their work,
while formerly only landscapes and portraits had been
painted. Ogata Korin must also be mentioned, after
whom the Korin school was named.
Yedo, the capital of the Shogunate, which was be-
coming more and more a great city, was the centre
of political and intellectual life. The Shoguns made
good roads from the town out into the country. The
5th ShSgun established a regular line of shipsfrom Yedo
to the provinces of Mutsu and Dewa, and he made
numerous canals which intersected the city. He also
built an aqueduct which provided the town with water
from the river Tamagawa.
The river Yodo that flows into the sea at Osaka,
was made navigable far inland.
The peace which the Tokugawa Shogunate gave
Japan resulted in the beginning of general economic
progress. The people were able to recover from the
great exhaustion consequent on the long wars of the
Kamakura and Ashikaga period. Yet the reign of
the 5th Shogun was not suited in many respects to
forward the development that was going on. His
1 68 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
personal merit lay solely in the realms of science and
art. The establishment of new lines of communica-
tion under his rule is to be ascribed rather to in-
dividual officials of capability than to him. He himself
took little interest in the business of government.
His extravagant court ruined the finance of the state.
His need of money led him to have the coins of the
Keicho years melted down, and replaced by a new
coinage of less value. The new coins which contained
only half the amount of real metal of the former ones,
decreased in value, and so large classes of the people
were injured. His successors therefore won all the
more merit in the Japanese Empire.
TOKUGAWA YOSHIMUNE
CHAPTER XXII
THE MOST FLOURISHING PERIOD QF THE TOKUGAWA
SHOGUNATE
The next Sh5gun, Ienobu ( 1709-17 12), nephew of his
predecessor, made Arai Hakuseki the celebrated
scholar and statesman, his adviser. He retained the
office with Ienobu's successor. Arai Hakuseki set
himself to remedy the principal evil of the government
of the 5th Shogun : the worthless coinage. He
gradually called in all the bad coins and had new
ones of full value minted. In order to prevent the
country from being too much drained of gold and
silver by the Dutch, the importation of European
goods was limited. He effected that there should be
more outward recognition of the dignity of the Sho-
gunate : that is to say the custom of stating at the
ceremony on the reception of the royal ambassador
from Korea, that his master held a higher rank than
the ShSgun, fell into abeyance. Also by his advice
the custom introduced by Ieyasu that only the suc-
cessor to the throne and the three Miya, the three
branch lines of the Imperial house, should found
families, and all the rest of the princes and princesses
should spend their days in Buddhist monasteries, was
i7o A HISTORY OF JAPAN
abandoned. So Prince Naohito, son of Higashiyama-
Tenno (1686- 1709), founded a family of his own, the
Kanin-no-miya,1 from which the present Emperor of
Japan is descended.
Ietsugu (1713-1716), the 7th Shogun, died without
issue. The 8th Shogun was Yoshimune (17 16- 1745),
great-grandson of Ieyasu and son of the Daimio of
Kii. He had a quiet and prosperous reign, preferred
a simple court life, and encouraged economy through-
out the Empire. He especially sought to check the
extravagant life of the Samurai, and to lead their
thoughts again to military exercises.
He was zealous to increase the production of the
soil. Oranges were cultivated in the province of Kii
at this time, tobacco in the provinces of Satsuma and
Hidachi, and salt was gathered on the banks of the
inland sea ; the cultivation of the vine made great
advancement in the province of Kai. Yoshimune
also planted a kind of potato in the plain of Kanto,
and the sugar-cane on the island of Shikoku. He
encouraged textile industries, and founded botanical
gardens and a sanatorium at Yedo.
He understood men, and recognised talent in his
officials. He raised Ooka Todasuke from a subordin-
ate post to be mayor of Yedo (Edo-machi-bugio) and
finally made him a Daimi5. With his help he carried
out important reforms in the administration of justice;
the so-called 100 articles of Ieyasu are the result of
his energy.
1 Miya = imperial family.
TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE 171
Yoshimune was himself a good scholar ; he was a
student of astronomy and invented astronomical
instruments. He invited Muro Kiuso, a distinguished
student of Chinese literature to his court, and com-
missioned him to write ethical books for the people.
He also sought the society of Ogiu Sorai who was
celebrated for his knowledge of Chinese literature.
It was at this time of the encouragement of learning
that the revival of the classical literature of Japan
began with Kada Azumamaro, of which we shall treat
later in greater detail. Yoshimune even turned his
attention to European culture. He allowed one of
his officials at Nagasaki to learn Dutch, and removed
the prohibition on the importation of European books.
From that time Dutch began to be more and more
studied, and thus the influence of European learning
began to penetrate gradually into Japan, especially
in the departments of medicine and of the arts of war.
But Yoshimune feared a closer alliance with Europe,
chiefly from conservative leanings, and reverence for
the laws of his ancestors. But another cause was
fear of a renewal of the missionary activity of the
Jesuits and of the conspiracies of Japanese Christians
supported by the Catholic powers, and of the Spanish
desire for conquest. The Dutch, naturally, did
nothing to prevent the exclusion of Europeans, as
they greatly desired to keep the Japan trade entirely
to themselves.
CHAPTER XXIII
END OF THE GREAT PERIOD OF PROSPERITY QF
THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE
The 8th Shogun, Yoshimune, was succeeded by his
son Ieshige (i 745-1 762). He was sickly and a weak
ruler and his reign was marked by many abuses. He
was succeeded by his son Ieharu (1762- 1786) who
left the business of state to his two favourites, the
treasurer, Tanuma Okitsugu, and his son Okitomo.
Both were avaricious place-hunters who accepted
bribes, and farmed the taxes and greatly injured the
government and the authority of the Shogunate.
During their reign the land was assailed by dire
natural events such as floods, earthquakes, conflagra-
tions and volcanic eruptions. The government took
no measures to alleviate the distress, and a universal
oppressive famine was the result. Hatred of the two
favourites grew more bitter, and at last Okitomo was
murdered in the Shogun's palace, and his father
Okitsugu had to abdicate.
Ieharu died without issue in 1786 and was succeeded
by Ienari (1786- 1838), the grandson of a younger
son of Yoshimune.
As Ienari was very young, his relative, Matsudaira
Sadanobu, the treasurer, an admirable statesman,
THE TOKUGAWA SHOGUNATE 173
governed for him. With his reign Japan entered on
a happier period, and as there was then a very clever
Emperor, KSkaku-Tenno (1780-18 17), the age is
generally spoken of as that of the wise Emperor in the
west (Ki5to), and of the clever treasurer in the east
(Yedo). Matsudaira Sadanobu carried on the plans
and efforts of the 8th Shogun, Yoshimune. He
pursued a policy of economy, and tried particularly
to dissuade the Samurai from their extravagant and
luxurious way of living, and to induce them to pay
their debts. He encouraged science and education,
and promoted universities and schools. He kept up
good relations with the imperial court, and built a
new palace for the Emperor.
He abdicated after 6 years, and Ienari who was
now of age, took over the government himself. The
Emperor appointed him Dijodaizin. This was the
end of the brilliant period of the Tokugawa Shogunate.
Famous painters like Maruyama Okio and
Katsushika Hokusai flourished at this time.
Literature was also of great excellence, especially in
the domain of fiction. The people reached a high
level of cultivation through a well developed system
of elementary schools. That education was soon to
prove of great practical importance ; the nation was
now ripe to take part in the great political questions
which were acute at this time.
Ienari abdicated in 1838 after a reign of over 50
years. His descendants were unable to ward off the
attacks which had for some time been preparing
against the authority of the Shogunate.
CHAPTER XXIV
THE AWAKENING OF A PUBLIC OPINION. IN-
TELLECTUAL TENDENCIES TOWARDS THE REVIVAL
OF THE IMPERIAL POWER, AND THE OPENING OF
THE COUNTRY TO EUROPEANS
The revival of learning during the peace that reigned
under the Tokugawa Shogunate, resulted, as we
have already indicated, in the renaissance of the old
classical literature of Japan. In the time of the 8th
Shogun (1716-1745), Kada Azumamaro awoke
interest in the Kojiki, the oldest work of importance,
the Homer of the Japanese, in which the divine
descent and the first great deeds of the Japanese
Emperors were celebrated. His studies were carried
on by his pupil, Kamo Mabuchi. But Kamo Mabuchi's
pupil, Motoori Norinaga went farther than the others,
and his work was the commentary of the Kojiki held
now as representative. He there describes the ancient
form of government, demonstrates especially how the
Japanese imperial family has reigned uninterruptedly
from the earliest times, and he awoke the con-
sciousness of the Japanese people to the ancient
honour and dignity of the imperial dynasty. He
had a distinguished pupil, Hirata Atsutane, who was
the reformer of the old ancestor-worship which from
REVIVAL OF THE IMPERIAL POWER 175
this time onward was called Shintoism. These four
men were called the four Ushi1 of Shintoism. Their
writings were very widely read, and they found
everywhere enthusiastic disciples and pupils.
This activity in matters of historical learning had
great practical results. The opinion became general
that the Emperor must be restored to his ancient
power and position, and that the authority of the
Shogunate which really rested on usurpation, must
be destroyed. To advocate this course the historian
Rai Sanyo wrote his " Nihongaishi " (Japanese private
history).1 The book deals with feudal history from
the Kamakura period to the Tokugawa Shogunate,
and is very hostile to the feudal system. The
work was eagerly read and understood. Everyone
knew that Rai Sanyo's attacks on the Minamoto and
the Taira really pointed at the ruling Tokugawa, and
so the discontent with the prevailing regime increased
every day.
Two Samurai of low rank, Takeuchi Shikibu and
Yamagata Daini, attempted to set on foot a practical
reorganization of the present conditions. Under the
9th Shogun, Takeuchi Shikibu went to Kioto, and
tried to induce the imperial court officials to make
use of public opinion and shake off the authority of
the ShSgunate. The government at Yedo saw
through his plot, and sent him into exile. Under the
10th Shogun, Yamagata carried on the plan, and .the
1 Great men.
8 History written by a private individual, in contrast to the
official histories,
1 76 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Shogun made him pay with his life for his alliance
with Takeuchi and others of a similar way of thinking.
But even these strong measures could not protect the
Sh5gunate from the prevailing efforts. Men arose in
all parts of the Empire who carried on a violent
agitation, and urged the people to rise against the
Shogunate.
Another intellectual tendency was associated with
that " public opinion " which was directed against
the government of the Shogunate, and had its
part in undermining its authority. It has been told
how from 1637 fear of the Jesuits' activity and of the
Spaniards' desire of conquest had caused the exclusion
of Europeans from Japan. Nagasaki alone had
remained open to the Dutch, and the 8th Shogun
had permitted the Japanese to learn the Dutch
language, and allowed the introduction of Dutch
books. Dutch physicians in Nagasaki taught
numbers of Japanese. Those Japanese students soon
formed an influential party, which adopted European
customs, and were enthusiastic at the idea of introduc-
ing an European system of education.
The relations of Japan with Europe soon became
a burning question. In 1786 the Russians who had
already taken possession of the whole of Siberia
came to the north of Japan, to the island of Ezo
(Hokkaido) that belonged to it, and conquered
several small islands. The Shogunate government
were again seized with fear of European plans of
conquest, and fortified the coast in the neighbourhood
of Yedo. They sent several expeditions to gain
REVIVAL OF THE IMPERIAL POWER 177
information about the northern districts and frontiers
of the Empire. One of them was led by Mamiya.
He discovered incidentally that Saghalien which had
hitherto been regarded as a peninsula, was an island,
and therefore the straits between Saghalien and the
mainland were named the Mamiya Straits. He led
his expedition as far as Manchuria, and the informa-
tion he obtained there is set down in the narration of
his travels. At that time, too, In5-Chukei made the
first map of Japan. The Russians repeated their
attacks on the island of Ezo, and the English landed
in Kiusiu, and in 1808 burnt a village near Nagasaki.
Such events served to strengthen the Shogunate in
its principle of excluding foreigners, and as a number
of European merchants penetrated inland from
Nagasaki, in 1825 the order went forth to the Daimios
to expel all Europeans.
Then the students who had learned Dutch and
adopted Dutch civilization, made themselves heard.
They declared that in order to defend themselves
successfully from European attacks, they must enter
into closer relations with Europe. Watanabe Kazan
and Takano Choei wrote several books promulgating
that view. The government forbade their publica-
tion and imprisoned their authors ; Takano Choei
had to kill himself. But their ideas could not be
suppressed and spread even in the circles of the
Shogunate itself, for the foreign powers who urged
more and more the opening of the country, convinced
them of the superiority of their civilization and
especially of their arms.
12
CHAPTER XXV
CONCLUSION OF THE FIRST COMMERCIAL TREATY
The nth Shogun abdicated in 1838, and was
succeeded by his son Ieyoshi (1 838-1 853). In the
beginning of his reign the treasurer, Mizuno Tada-
kuni, attempted to carry out domestic reforms which
aimed at strengthening the power of the Shogunate.
But they failed completely, and led to the fall of the
minister.
His successor was Abe Masahiro, and on him fell
the task of deciding the foreign question. In July
1853 four American ships sailed into the harbour of
Uraga in th^3 province oi Sagami. Their commander,
Admiral Perry, asked the Shogun in the name of the
United States to make a commercial treaty. The
Shogunate was uncertain, and asked to be allowed
to consider the matter until the next year. Two
months later a Russian ship sailed into the har-
bour of Nagasaki, and a Russian envoy asked in
the name of his government for the conclusion of a
commercial treaty. In his uncertainty, the treasurer
applied to the imperial court officials and the
Daimios. The court officials and a large majority of
THE FIRST COMMERCIAL TREATY 179
the Daimios were unanimous for continuing to exclude
foreigners. Public opinion was greatly excited _by
these negociations. It was clear that a large
majority of the people, and especially the imperial
party, were against the foreigners. But, notwith-
standing, the government did not venture to give the
American embassy an absolute refusal. They feared
that it might lead to serious quarrels with foreign
powers, and even to the conquest of the whole
country. In order to find some way out of a difficult
position, they decided to open to the Americans the
two worst harbours in the country, Shimoda in the
province of Izu, and Hakodate in the island of Ezo
(or Hokkaido). A provisional treaty was made with
Perry, 31st March, 1854, who had reappeared with a
flotilla of seven ships, at Uraga. Treaties soon
followed with Russia, England and Holland, and the
same ports were opened to those countries.
These measures of the government called forth a
storm of indignation from the people, especially from
the imperial party who sought to make use of the
general dislike of foreigners and the Shogunate for
the attainment of their goal : the restoration of the
imperial family to its original position of power.
The small party friendly to the Europeans which
was utterly opposed to the imperial party possessed
too little actual power for the Shogunate to find their
support of real help.
The Sh5gun was Iesada, son of the 12th ShSgun
who had died in 1853. His aged treasurer, Abe
Masahiro, felt no longer able to support the tasks
180 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
awaiting the government and resigned. His suc-
cessor was the Daimio, Hotta Masahiro, who be-
longed to the European party and was in favour of
opening all the trading ports. When in 1856 the
United States sent a consul in the person of Harris
Kam with the commission to obtain a definitely
better treaty of commerce, Hotta Masahiro received
him as he wished at Yedo, and introduced him to
the Shogun in person, a proceeding quite at variance
with prevailing custom. He, moreover, appointed a
commission for the purpose of working out a treaty
of commerce, which held its meetings in the Shogun's
palace. In 1858 a treaty was concluded with the
United States by the articles of which the best ports
were opened to them, and which remained the basis
for all commercial treaties with that power until
1904.
The principal articles of the treaty were : —
1. Japan and the United States of America were
henceforth to cultivate friendly relations with
each other.
3. Besides the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate, the
following ports were to be open to the United
States: Kanagawa (Yokohama), 4 July, 1859;
Nagasaki, 4 July, 1859; Niigata, 1 January,
i860 ; Hiogo (Kobe), 1 January, 1863. Shimoda
was closed 6 months after the opening
Kanagawa.
4. The Japanese government to levy duties on im-
ports and exports.
/
THE FIRST COMMERCIAL TREATY 181
6. The Americans to be under the jurisdiction of
their own consular courts, and not under the
Japanese courts of law.
7. The Americans to move freely in the neighbour-
hood of the open ports in a space of about
25 miles.
8. Religious tolerance to be extended to the
Americans in the regions open to them.
9. The Japanese government to extradite American
criminals.
10. The United States to be willing to sell ships of
war, steamers and arms to the Japanese govern-
ment, and to place at its disposal instructors,
officers and artisans.
14. The treaty to be valid from 4 July, 1859.
In order to be legal, the treaty required the
signature of the Emperor. But at that time the
imperial capital, Kioto, was the seat of the chief
leaders of the imperial party. They zealously worked
for the removal of the Shogunate, and sought to
make opposition to the foreigners serve their purpose,
while for their part they supported the entire ex-
clusion of foreigners. The Emperor refused his
signature, although Hotta Masahiro asked for a
personal audience. Therefore Hotta resigned.
His successor, Ii Naosuke, a courageous and
talented man, fully shared his predecessor's convic-
tions. In 1858 he finally concluded the treaty of
commerce dispensing with the Emperor's signature,
and opened the ports agreed upon to the United
i82 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
States. He soon made similar treaties with Russia,
England, Holland, France and Prussia, likewise
against the desire of the Emperor.
Therefore he was the best hated man in the
Empire. It chanced that the young Shogun died
just then. The Lord High Treasurer summoned the
next heir, the 13 year old grandson of the nth
Shogun, from the province of Kii, and made him
Shogun. This proceeding of Ii was violently
attacked by the Daimios. It was thought to point
to a desire for sole authority, and that for that
purpose he had made a Tokugawa, who was a minor,
Shogun. The vassals and friends of the Daimio of
Mito who was a Tokugawa, and whose family had
long possessed the hereditary title of Vice-Shogun,
specially agitated against the Lord High Treasurer,
and tried to make Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the grown-
up son of the Vice-Shogun, Shogun. As he belonged
to the imperial party, he won strong support. A con-
spiracy was formed between the imperial court
officials, and the DaimiSs who belonged to the
imperial party, for the purpose of driving out all
foreigners through the Vice-Sh6gun. But Ii dis-
covered the plot, took the chief leaders prisoner,
and condemned them to incarceration ; on some of
them the sentence of harakiri was passed. These
severe measures only served to increase the hatred
borne him. The following year, i860, he was
murdered by Samurai at the Sakurada gate as he
was about to enter the Shogunate palace.
Samurai and Ronin, hostile to the ShSgunate, also
THE FIRST COMMERCIAL TREATY 183
made numerous attempts against foreigners at this
time.
Ii's successor, the treasurer Ando Nobumasa, con-
tinued a policy of friendly relations with Europeans.
But recognising the weakness of the Shogunate, he
thought of reconciliation with the imperial court. In
1862 he sent an embassy to Europe and America
to negociate a delay in the time fixed for the open-
ing of some of the ports. He married the young
Shogun to an imperial princess, and by so doing
increased the bitter hatred of his enemies. He was
attacked and seriously wounded in the Shogunate
palace.
Thus the imperial party were successful in using
the complications that arose out of the foreign policy
to bring about the fall of the Shogunate.
CHAPTER XXVI
FALL OF THE SHOGUNATE. RESTORATION OF THE
IMPERIAL POWER
MEANWHILE a large number of Daimios and Samurai
who were discontented and inclined to the imperial
party, had gathered in the imperial capital, Kioto.
They criticised openly and severely the government
of the Shogunate. Foreign policy came in for a large
share of blame, and they demanded the overthrow
of the Shogunate, and the restoration of the legitimate
imperial government. The imperial court officials
naturally sympathized with these views. In 1862 in
the name of the Emperor they invited the Shogun to
come to Kioto, to drive out the foreigners, and to
carry out various reforms, especially that of the
Shogunate government. The Emperor ordered the
Daimios to drive out all foreigners.
Naturally the Shogun did not obey, but he had no
power to prevent the imperial party from proceeding
against foreigners. The American and the English
embassies at Yedo were burnt down. By order of
the Daimio of Nagato (Choshu) an American ship
was fired at from the Bakan fort, 10th May, 1803, a
Samurai at the End of the Tokugawa Period
[Face p. 184
FALL OF THE SHOGUNATE 185
French ship, 23rd May, a Dutch one, 26th May, an
American, 1st June, and a French, 5th June, when
passing through the Bakan straits. His act resulted
in the bombardment of the Bakan fort, 5th-8th August,
1863, by a fleet consisting of 9 English, 3 French, 1
American and 4 Dutch men of war. The fort was
taken, and the Daimio was compelled to sue for
peace. The confederate powers demanded as in-
demnity three million pounds sterling from the
ShSgunate government. It paid the sum in order
to avoid a dangerous war.
The year before, 1862, an Englishman named
Richardson was murdered by the retainers of Shimatsu
Saburo, brother of the Daimi5 of Satsuma, while
accompanying him on his return from Yedo, because
he had not paid the prince the customary homage.
When the English were informed of the murder, they
demanded that Shimatsu Saburo should be delivered
up to them. As this was refused, their fleet, in July,
1863, bombarded and destroyed Kugoshima, the port
of the princedom of Satsuma. Satsuma sued for
peace and declared itself willing to pay the heavy
sum of £25,000 demanded by the English as com-
pensation. The Shogunate made its apologies for the
occurrence, and paid £100,000 as idemnity.
If then war was avoided by the sensible policy of
the Shogunate, a greater danger was threatened by
the ultra-imperial party which ruled the Emperor's
court and , the imperial capital and surrounding
territory. In its blind hatred of the foreigner it
would have plunged the country into the greatest
186 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
perils had not the Shogunate warned the Emperor
of the dangerous doings of those people, and so
brought about a change in the imperial policy
towards foreigners.
Matsudaira Katamori, prince of Aizu, a relation
and adherent of the Shogun, a man of education
and enlightment, and a friend of Europe, went
to Kioto and allied himself with the imperial
court. He gained the help of a prince of the imperial
family. Through him the Emperor was informed of
recent events, and was shown how dangerous it was
to continue the policy of hostility to the foreigner, and
how much wiser it would be to encourage friendly
intercourse which would be advantageous to the well-
being of the country. His warning did not fail to
have effect. The Emperor recognized that he must
change his policy in regard to the foreigner, if he did
not wish to bring great disasters on the whole empire.
He was ready to take on himself the responsibility
and the consequences with regard to the Sh5gunate
on the one hand, and the ultra-imperial party on the
other. In September, 1863, he sent the prince of
Nagato, an extremist of the imperial party, into exile.
Seven imperial court officials who had supported
Nagato, had to flee. The prince of Satsuma supported
this important change in the imperial policy, made an
alliance with Matsudaira Katamori and entered into
friendly relations with various foreigners. The Emperor
even determined to make use of the military power
of the ShSgunate. He transferred the custody of the
imperial capital and of the imperial palace, Matsudaira
FALL OF THE SHOGUNATE 187
Katamori, to his Shogunate troops and his ally, the
prince of Satsuma. In 1865 against the will of
the imperial government, he acknowledged the treaty
of commerce that had been made by the Shogunate
in 1858 with foreign powers. The imperial court
itself entered into friendly relations with individual
Europeans. The prince of Satsuma successfully
convinced many Daimios how unfounded was their
dislike of the foreigner. Hatred of the foreigner
decreased more and more in the imperial party,
especially when the embassy sent to Europe and
America in 1862 returned, full of praise of European
civilization. It seemed as if the continuance of the
Shogunate's authority was assured, since it had once
more gained a remarkable victory in the domain of
diplomacy.
But the Daimio of Nagato was its implacable
enemy ; he was meditating revenge for his exile that
had been effected by Matsudaira Katamori. His
vassals undertook in July, 1864, an attack on the
imperial capital that was only overcome with difficulty
by Matsudaira Katamori and the Daimio of Satsuma.
When in June, 1866, the Shogunate sent an army
against Nagato in order to crush him finally, it was
seen how greatly the military power of the Tokugawa
was weakened. The troops could do nothing, and
had to return without having accomplished their
mission, a circumstance that meant injury to the
position of the Shogunate.
The Shogun died in August, 1866, and the
Emperor in December of the same year. The
1 88 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Sh6gun's successor was Tokugawa Yoshinobu, son
of the Vice-Shogun at Mito. The present Emperor
Mutsuhito ascended the imperial throne in 1867.
The almost simultaneous deaths of the Emperor
and the Shogun were a cause of weakness in the political
situation, and the leaders of the imperial party felt
they must use it for the prosecution of their aims.
In 1865 the two most powerful vassals of the
DaimiS of Satsuma, the knights Saigo Takamori
and Okubo Toshimichi, both holding the views of
the imperial party, had entered into a secret alliance
with a vassal of the prince of Nagato, the Samurai
Kido Takayoshi. They planned that Nagato should
again join with Satsuma, and that both together
should abolish the ShSgunate, and restore the
Emperor to his old power. The 15th Shogun,
Tokugawa Yoshinobu, was as we have seen, a
supporter of the Emperor. He now had to deal
with foreign affairs, and thought it best in so difficult
a situation to avoid civil war, and sympathising with
the imperial party would not enter into a struggle on
behalf of the Shogunate with the Emperor. By the
advice of the Daimio of Tosa he delivered a written
document to the Emperor, 19th November, 1867,
in which he declared that he would place the
government of the Shogunate in the Emperor's
hands. The document that forms so important a
turning point in the history of Japan runs as follows :
" Since the middle ages the imperial power
has been more and more diminished through
the Fujiwara family. Later Minamoto Yoritomo
FALL OF THE SHOGUNATE 189
assumed the position of a Shogun, and brought the
power of the government into the possession of the
ShSgunate. I regret that so many obstacles are in
the way of my administration of the office. Foreign
affairs play an ever larger part, and intercourse with
foreign countries is continually on the increase. The
time therefore demands that our country should have
one united government. Herewith I give my power
back into your majesty's hands. Only when the
Emperor shall rule over the whole land, unite all
classes under his government and guard our father-
land, can our nation compete with foreign states. I
thus fulfil my duty to king and country."
And so after a faineant existence of 683 years, the
Emperor again entered on the actual possession of
the government.
All honour must be accorded to the policy of the
Shogunate from the time of Perry's appearance when
the question of relations with foreign countries
entered on a new stage. Its policy was guided solely
in the interests of the state. The Shogunate did not
make the treaty of commerce from love of the
foreigner but from conviction of the superiority of
foreign powers, and of the danger of quarrelling
with them. The Shogunate, from a feeling of
responsibility for the fate of the Empire, acted
against the will of the people and of the imperial
court, and so undermined its own power. From the
same point of view of the best interests of the state,
the last Shogun determined to avoid civil war and
voluntarily to place his office in the Emperor's hands.
FOURTH PERIOD
MEIJI
CHAPTER I
BEGINNING OF THE MEIJI AGE
At the time of the last Shogun's resignation,
the new Emperor was only fifteen years old, and
his councillors of the imperial party decided all
matters of state. Their policy was to secure the
supremacy of the imperial party throughout the
empire, and to render nugatory any attempt at a
future restoration of the Shogunate. Their first act
was to replace the Shogunate troops to whom the
custody of the imperial palace and capital were
entrusted by a strong imperial army. For this
purpose peace was concluded with the Daimid of
Nagato with whom there had been war in con-
sequence of the change of imperial policy in 1863,
and who had a large military force at his disposal. In
December, 1867, Matsudaira Katamori was ordered
to withdraw with his troops from the imperial palace.
Its custody was transferred to the Daimi5s of
Satsuma and Tosa and their friends. Terms of
peace were offered to the Daimio of Nagato, and he
was asked to come to the capital with troops. The
seven imperial court officials who had fled were
recalled and reinstated in their offices. The official
13
i94 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
imperial proclamation relating to the new order of
administration was published, 3rd January, 1868. It
officially put an end to the former Shogunate
government, and it was solemnly declared that for
the future all power was vested in the Emperor.
The imperial bureaucracy was newly organized.
The Sosai (president) and under him the Gij5
(lesser council) and the Sanyo (greater council)
formed the head of the imperial officials. The Sosai
was Prince Arisugawa-no-miya Taruhito, an uncle of
the Emperor, the members of the lesser council were
princes and Daimios belonging to the imperial party,
especially those of Satsuma, Tosa, and Nagato, and
of the greater council Samurai of the imperial party.
None of the former Sh5gunate officials received a
post. The ex-Shogun, several of the Tokugawa, and
Matsudaira Katamori were entirely passed over when
the offices were filled.
Tokugawa Yoshinobu and his adherents naturally
felt the ingratitude of such conduct on the part of the
imperial government, and were extremely angry.
Yoshinobu was then in the Shogunate palace at Kioto,
and here too had come Matsudaira Katamori after
his withdrawal with his troops from the imperial
palace. The troops themselves were so deeply stirred
at the injustice shown their commander that
Yoshinobu feared they might attack the imperial
palace and so revenge themselves on the imperial
party. In order to prevent bloodshed, notwithstand-
ing that he was himself much offended, he marched
with all his troops to Osaka.
THE MEIJI AGE 195
The imperial party who expected nothing good of
Yoshinobu summoned him in the name of the
Emperor to return to the capital without his army ;
he would be received in a friendly way and could lead
an honourable life at the imperial court.
Discord prevailed in Yoshinobu's camp. Yoshi-
nobu inclined to the preservation of peace, and was
not unwilling to accept the imperial offer. Matsudaira
Katamori, on the contrary, urged an attack on the
capital, and the destruction of the imperial party at
court. In the end Yoshinobu marched to the capital
with his whole army.
The princes of Satsuma, Nagato and Tosa waylaid
him at Fushimi, where fighting took place, 28th
January, 1868, in which the Shogunate troops were
defeated. They were superior in numbers but the
situation became daily more unfavourable for Yoshi-
nobu. Prince Ninnaji-no-miya Yoshiaki took over the
chief command of the imperial army. For the first time
he again bore the insignia of an imperial general :
Kinki, the brocade banner, and Setto, the sword of
justice. The Shogunate soldiers became more and
more conscious that they were rebels, and the number
of those who refused to take up arms against their
Emperor continually increased. Yoshinobu marched
back to Osaka with his army where he disbanded it,
and fled by sea to Yedo.
On February 5th, the imperial government
published a proclamation declaring Tokugawa
Yoshinobu and all his adherents rebels, and depriving
them of all rights and honours. Prince Arisugawa-
1 96 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
no-miya Taruhito now became commander-in-chief
of the imperial army, and marched with it to the
east.
Yoshinobu was tired of the struggle. He repaired
to the temple of Kaneiji in order to testify his peace-
able and loyal state of mind, and implored Arisugawa
to obtain his pardon from the Emperor. The imperial
army entered Yedo on April 26th and occupied the
Shogunate palace without striking a blow.
Yoshinobu's life was spared, and he was exiled to his
native Mito. As his successor in the royal house of
Tokugawa, the imperial party appointed the young
Tokugawa Iesato.
But the civil war was not at an end. A number
of the Shogun's loyal vassals who called themselves
Sh5gitai, true union, occupied the park of the temple
of Kaneiji at Yedo, and appointed Prince Rinoji-no-
miya, a Tokugawa, the former high priest of the
temple, their commander-in-chief. A fierce battle
was fought in the park, on July 4th, in which the
imperial party were victors. The temple with its
valuable art treasures was almost entirely destroyed.
The Sh5gitai fled to the territory of Matsudaira
Katamori in the north of the Empire where the
struggle was continued. Matsudaira won the
adherence of 22 other Daimi5s of northern Japan, and
gave the government a great deal of trouble for more
than 6 months.
After defeating the Shogitai, the imperial army
turned its attention to the provinces of Shimosa
and Shimozuke where Otori Keisuke, an adherent of
THE MEIJI AGE 197
the Shogunate, was making a stubborn resistance.
After several battles, only one of which ended
favourably for the ShSgunate cause, Otori fled to the
town of Aizu where the prince of that district,
Matsudaira Katamori and the Daimi5s allied with
him, had collected their very considerable forces.
The town of Aizu is situated on the tableland of
Aizu which is surrounded on all sides by high
mountains, and difficult of access to an attacking
party. The imperial troops marched by two ways to
the tableland : one division went through the province
of Echigo along the river Aga-no-gawa which rises in
the Aizu tableland, and on the banks of which the
town of Aizu is situated ; the other marched by the
hostile fortress, Shirakawa, and took it. In the
beginning of October the imperial troops commenced
an attack on the town of Aizu. Matsudaira's
adherents made a stubborn resistance. The Biakko-
Tai, an association of youths from 15 to 17 years old
who had joined together for the purpose of defence,
deserves special mention. They fought with great
courage ; 19 of them, when the town perished in
flames ended their lives by Harakiri. A few women,
armed with spears, took part in the battle. In the
end the imperial army was victorious. Matsudaira,
wishing to save the lives of the 3000 besieged, forbade
suicide, and surrendered with them to the conquerors
who exercised mercy. The Daimios, his allies, who
were scattered through the land, gradually
surrendered.
The war was also carried on at sea. The
198 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Sh5gunate had acquired a number of men-of-war
built in Holland, 8 of which were in the hands of
Enomoto Takeaki, a faithful adherent of the
Shogunate. These ships succumbed to the imperial
fleet in the battles at the port Miyako and at the
island of Ezo. There the fortress Goriokaku made a
long resistance and only surrendered in July, 1869.
That event ended the civil war, and ensured the
imperial supremacy throughout the land.
Meanwhile the government had come to a firm
decision in regard to the question of foreigners. Now
that the whole responsibility of government lay with
the imperial party, they considered it incumbent on
them to be on friendly terms with foreign powers.
Even men like the Prince of Nagato who had a few
years ago violently agitated for the exclusion of
foreigners, now agreed to the policy of friendly
relations with them. It became clear that the hostile
position of the imperial party towards foreigners had
been essentially due to their opposition to the
Shogunate. The prejudices, too, which had actually
prevailed with them, disappeared in closer intercourse
with the Europeans who at this time came in large
numbers to the country. The imperial court was now
not only convinced that the entire opening up of the
country was an absolute necessity, and that it would
bring misfortune on the whole empire to resist the
superior force of foreign nations, but also hoped to
derive advantage from the adoption of European
forms of civilization.
The Emperor on February 7th, 1868, the first Meiji
THE MEIJI AGE 199
year, sent an embassy to the representatives of the
foreign powers at Hiogo (Kobe) to inform them that
the ShSgunate government no longer existed and
that the Emperor alone held authority : the imperial
government had instituted a special office for foreign
affairs and desired henceforth to maintain friendly
relations with foreign powers. It did not rely merely
on these promises ; the government proved by deeds
how much it was in earnest. When the Ronin (errant
knights belonging to no lord) or the regular troops
made attacks on Europeans,severe measures were taken
against the evil-doers, and the government did not
hesitate to risk the displeasure of their own vassals.
Twenty knights of the Prince of Tosa who had killed a
French officer with eleven men were condemned to
carry out harakiri in a Buddhist temple at Sakai in the
presence of the French ambassador ; the last 9 of them,
at the request of the ambassador who was unable to
endure the terrible spectacle any longer, were let off
with banishment.
A few days after the transmission of the imperial
declaration to the representatives of the foreign powers
at Hi5go, the Emperor Mutsuhito solemnly read a
proclamation to the highest Kuge and Daimios in the
temple belonging to the imperial palace at Ki5to, and
ratified it with his oath. The proclamation contained
the guiding lines of the future imperial policy.
I. Assemblies shall be called into being in which all
classes of the people shall be represented. All
affairs of state shall be therein discussed and public
opinion will thus find expression.
200 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
2. In future all distinction between the upper and
lower classes of the people shall as far as possible
be removed for the purpose of securing the order
and peace of the Empire.
3. Every individual, the highest officer of the state
as well as the most insignificant man of the people,
shall strive to do his work well and not neglect his
special calling.
4. Old-fashioned and useless manners and customs
shall be banned, and efforts made to guide the
people in right directions.
5. Knowledge from all parts of the world shall be
made use of for rendering the state strong and
secure.
On November 6th, 1868, the Emperor followed the
old custom of naming the new era. He called it
Meiji, i.e. u brilliant or shining reign." He decided
that for the future such a designation should hold
good for the whole reign of an Emperor.
At the end of 1868, the official machinery that had
been set up on January 3rd was again abolished
and its place taken by provisional offices. In July,
1869, an organization of the imperial central govern-
ment was set up on the model of the administrative
reforms of the first Taiho year. A Jingikan and a
Dajokan were again appointed, of which the last
comprised the Dajodajin or Chancellor-in-chief, the
Sadaijin or Chancellor of the left and the Udaijin or
Chancellor of the right. As we said above, single
ministerial departments were under the Dajokan which
THE MEIJI AGE 201
resembled the modern European ministries. Corre-
sponding to that model, six ministers were appointed
under the Dajokan : a minister of the imperial family,
a minister of finance, a minister of foreign affairs, a
war minister (from 1872 minister of war and the
marine), a minister of justice, and a minister of home
affairs. The Jingikan was abolished and replaced by
a minister for religion under the Dajokan.
These offices were bestowed on the most meritorious
knights of the imperial party ; only one of the princes,
the prince of Satsuma, received an office, and he was
appointed Chancellor of the left.
The Emperor fixed his residence at Yedo, Novem-
ber 26th, 1868, and from that date it bore the name
TSkio, i.e. the eastern capital.
The Shogunate was at length at an end and the
imperial power restored. But even so, the restoration
was only partial. It did not yet possess by a long
way such a position as the Taika reforms had given
it, or at least attempted to give it. There were still
277 Daimios who only acknowledged the imperial
supremacy, and possessed all the power and authority
that a German confederate prince has to-day, and
besides had undiminished rights of maintaining their
own Samurai army.
But, through the great enthusiasm for the new
imperial government these conditions, also, came to
an end. A number of ministers requested the Daimi5s
under whom they had hitherto been as Samurai, to
give up their independent position as princes, and to
place their lands in the Emperor's hands. Among
203 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
them were the Daimios of Nagato, Satsuma, Tosa,
and Hizen, and they prepared a document to be
signed and presented to the Emperor in which it was
stated : —
" Formerly the imperial family alone held the
reins of government, and so should they govern in
the future. The whole Empire must be governed by
our Emperor, since the land belonged to him from
the beginning, and all the people are his subjects.
Our vassals cannot live a single day without the Em-
peror. In the middle ages the Kamakura Shogunate
violently bereft the Emperor of his power. The
Tokugawa Shogunate and ourselves did not realise
the wrong we were doing. But now we repent, and
are prepared to give our lands back to the Emperor.
Only if our Empire is united under one ruler will it be
able to compete with the European states." Gradu-
ally the signatories to this document were able to
persuade many other Daimios to give up their inde-
pendence and their lands.
The imperial decree that put an end to the feudal
system followed on June 17th, 1869. The decree
abolished the princely power of the Daimios ; all
lands became the property of the Emperor, and all
the Japanese, his subjects. The independent powers
which the feudal system had created came to an end,
and one central power governed the whole Empire and
all its inhabitants. The decision meant an absolute
change in the political, social, economic,and intellectual
life of the nation, the importance of which was incom-
parably greater than the speedy introduction of the
THE MEIJI AGE 203
technical achievements of European nations, a striking
circumstance that chiefly attracts attention, but it
was really a result of the sweeping political reforms.
The former feudal subjection was replaced by civil
liberty, intellectual enlightenment, and a wholly new
economic life. The complete destruction of the petri-
fied political forms of the old feudal system was an
essential factor in the adoption in its widest extent of
European civilization.
But the ethical advantages of feudal times were not
destroyed by the abolition of the political forms of
the feudal system. BushidS still continued to exist;
the chivalrous ideas, especially the lofty sense of
honour of the Japanese acquaintance with which we
have made in feudal times, played an essential part
in the wonderful success of the Japanese nation in its
thorough and speedy adoption of the advantages of
European civilization. The sense of honour that
made the nation unable to endure being looked down
on, was calculated in a high degree to determine the
Japanese eagerly to adopt the new methods. But it
was not only by its moral qualities that the Japanese
nation so quickly won the esteem of Europe : even
more important was the fact that it was sufficiently
educated both intellectually and aesthetically to ap-
preciate the superiority of European civilization. We
have pointed out the great epochs of the intellectual
and artistic activity of the Japanese nation, and have
mentioned great scholars and artists who before the
closer ties with Europe did distinguished work.
There were a large number of institutions for higher
204 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
education ; there were elementary schools in all the
larger communities. The difficult art of writing was
practised by the greater part of the people. That
Japan did not earlier enter into relations with Europe
had its cause in its historical development, in its domes-
tic politics. An absolute change in those politics was
required, and the decree of June 17, 1869, brought it
into being.
With the revolution that removed all the DaimiSs
and Samurai from their former position was bound
up the question of what was to be done with them in
the future. The decree of June 17, 1869, appointed
the Daimios as prefects and territorial governors over
the lands they had formerly possessed. Compensa-
tion in money was given to the Samurai. But in
1 87 1 the imperial government dismissed all the
Daimios from their offices, and compensated them
with money paid in government bonds. The amount
differed in accordance with the importance of each
prince. The whole sum paid in compensation to the
Samurai and Daimios was about ;£ 17,390,000. The
government in addition undertook to pay all the
princes' debts, a sum of not less than £1,743,229.
Their titles were fixed on this occasion. All the
Daimi5s and former imperial court officials received
the appellation of Kazoku, i.e. Flower or noble families.
They resided almost without exception at Tokio.
The families fell into five classes according to their
former importance : 1. K5 = prince, 2. Ko (written in
Japanese differently from the first Kd) = marquis, 3.
Haku - Earl, 4. Shi - viscount, 5. Dan - Baron. There
THE MEIJI AGE 205
were at that time 486 Kazoku families and 406,209
Samurai families.
The country was in 1871 divided into three Ful
with the towns Tokio, Kioto and Osaka. The Fu
were again divided into seventy-two Ken.a The
island of Ezo or HokkaidS formed an exception, and
was regarded as a colony, and also the island of
Riukiu which was governed by a king who paid
homage to the imperial supremacy. But they were
- on joined to a government district.8
At this period one reform followed another with
astonishing rapidity. In 1870 the judicial system
underwent reform : it was separated from the poli-
tical administration. A new penal code was begun
on the European model and was finished in 1880, and
all legal affairs were administered in European
fashion.
In 1 87 1, also, a new system of coinage was intro-
duced : the En (about two shillings) was the normal
coin. A gold standard was only introduced after the
victorious war with China. Europeans now founded
banks and insurance societies in Japan.
The telegraph had been introduced in 1870; the
next year the subterranean cable between Nagasaki
1 Chief divisions.
"Government districts or departments.
•At the present time the country is divided into three Fu
and forty-three Ken. Hokkaido, Formosa and Saghalien have
a special government, as has the recently acquired Korea and
the part of Manchuria ruled by Japan.
ao6 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
and Shanghai was laid. The railway between TokiS
and Yokohama was opened in 1872, and other lines
opening up the whole country soon followed. A
postal system on the European model was instituted
in 1 87 1. In a few years there was a widely spread
network of telegraphs. Compulsory education was
made the law in 1872, and in 1873 the Gregorian
calendar and the observance of Sunday were intro-
duced.
Immediately after the breaking up of the feudal
system, by the decree of June 17th, 1871, the former
army of knights was disbanded, and replaced by an
imperial army which in 1873 was to be joined by
citizens and peasants. The formation, equipment
and training of the imperial army followed the
European model. French instructors were employed
until 1877 and they were replaced later by German.
Universal conscription was introduced in 1873. At
that time the imperial army consisted of 6 divisions,1
and each division had a peace footing of 7,000 men.
An imperial navy was also founded at this time.
These reforms which were carried out by an
absolute government were followed by the reform of
the absolute government itself, and may be compared
with the period of liberal-minded absolutism in
European states when the people grew ripe for
political independence and constitutional government.
But before this change occurred there was a fierce
and widespread struggle to defend the reforms already
made from the reaction that set in against them.
1 It now consists of 18 divisions.
CHAPTER II
REACTION AGAINST THE NEW SYSTEM OF GOVERN-
MENT
It can be easily understood that the activity of the
reforming government, and the joyful acquiescence of
the majority of the people, excited serious discontent
in the class that had formerly played the chief part,
and was now deprived of all its privileges. The
Samurai found that in the general economic and
industrial competition and progress they were out-
stripped by the citizens whom they had hitherto
regarded with contempt. They were even deprived
of what had formerly distinguished them out-
wardly from citizens and peasants, the right to wear
two swords, by an edict of 1871. The money
compensation they received was very small ; in any
case it bore no relation to their former way of living,
and was soon spent. The only work they understood
was that of fighting, and they had neither the
capacity nor the desire for industrial or agricultural
employments. Those, and they were the greater
part, who received no office saw themselves face to
face with poverty. The large party of opposition to
ao8 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
the new system of government that was thus formed
among the Samurai included many who, a short time
before, had supported the imperial government
against the Shogunate. They had not foreseen that
the restoration of the imperial power would result in
the complete abolition of the feudal system, and the
ruin of their class. As it was clear to most of them
that there was very little chance of the restoration of
feudal conditions, they placed their hopes on a
foreign war by means of which they thought to win
fame and esteem. And so the Samurai agitated for
war with Korea.
They found support for their effort in that direction
in General Saigo Takamori, a former Samurai of the
Daimioof Satsuma. He had won great distinction in
the restoration of the imperial power, and held an
important place at the imperial court. Many
councillors of state of the various government depart-
ments supported their efforts, and in 1873 had very
nearly succeeded in forcing their will, when Iwakura
Tomomi, the Chancellor of the right, and the
councillors of state, Okubo Toshimichi and Kido
Takayoshi returned from a three years' tour in Europe,
and declared that for the present, the government
must under no circumstances enter into a foreign
war ; peace must be preserved in the land, in order
to carry on the reforms already made and to introduce
others. The Emperor shared the views of the
reform and peace party. That fact so embittered the
aristocratic leaders of the war party, Saigo Takamori,
and the councillors Eto Shimpei and Itagaki Taisuke,
REACTION AGAINST THE NEW SYSTEM 209
that they resigned the imperial service. They now
put themselves at the head of the opposition against
the reforming government.
In 1874 a rebellion led by Et5 Shimpei broke
out in the Saga district and it took the government
a month to quell it. It saw that danger to the
country might ensue from this discontent, and that
something must be done to divert the opposition's
desire of fighting to other quarters. It therefore
determined on an expedition to Formosa to subdue
the savage tribes living in the south of the island. A
legitimate political cause was forthcoming. A few
years back Japanese merchants had been murdered
there. Representations made at the time by Japan
to the Chinese government to which Formosa was
subordinate, were without result. Japan was there-
fore within its rights, if it now sought satisfaction on
its own part.
In May, 1874, General Saig5 Tsugumichi set out
from Nagasaki to Formosa with 36,000 men, mostly
Samurai, and in a few months succeeded in bringing
the savage tribes of the island into subjection. But
Japan was unable to annex a part of the island, as
the Chinese government entered a protest against
Japan's proceedings. Diplomatic negotiations en-
sued, and with the help of English arbitration it was
decided that China should pay Japan an indemnity
of £50,000
The enterprise, however, did not remove the dis-
content prevailing among the knights.
In 1876 rebellions again broke out. A large
14
aiO A HISTORY OF JAPAN
number of Samurai collected together in the town of
Kumamoto where there had been peculiar resistance
to the introduction of European customs. In the
night of October 24th-25th they attacked Major-
General Taneda and numerous other officers of the
garrison. Taneda and many of his comrades died.
The prefect of the district was seriously wounded.
The soldiers in the barracks were forced to surrender
to the rebels. Revolts also occurred in Akitsuki and
Hagi.
The next year, 1877, the rebellion that the former
General Saigo Takamori had so long been preparing
took place. He had belonged to the imperial party,
and had supported the friendly policy of the govern-
ment towards foreigners. But he possessed too
much of the old spirit of chivalry, he was too much
a child of feudal times, of too romantic a nature, not
to find the policy of the imperial civil government
too levelling. From patriotic motives he had eagerly
supported the ^abolition of fiefs and the decree of
June 17th, 1809, but he desired to preserve for the
fatherland the chivalrous spirit of feudal times. He
and many educated officers who gathered round him,
considered it unworthy of a military state to be
governed as now, solely by civil officials, and could
not endure that so many brave Samurai should be
reduced to a condition of absolute insignificance.
Their aim was to replace this, in their opinion,
weakly official system of government which they
despised, by a strong, military rule, ready and able
to pursue a glorious foreign policy, and to have no
REACTION AGAINST THE NEW SYSTEM 211
fear of entering on a war. They hoped that under
such a government the Samurai would regain their
rights.
The rebellion had been long preparing. With
men of similar views like Major-General Kirino
Toshiaki and Shinowara Kunimoto, Takamori. had
founded in his native Kagoshima the so-called
private school. There the classical literature of
China was studied and daily military exercises
practised. The number of pupils gradually increased
to 3,000.
In February, 1877, the discontent broke out into
open deeds of violence against the government
officials. This was against the will of Takamori
who would have preferred to wait until his strength
was more assured. But there was now no going
back. With a force of 12,000 men he marched
against the town of Kumamoto, where there was a
strong imperial garrison that must be overcome
before he could proceed to march against Tokio.
The imperial Major-General Tani Motoki, the com-
mander-in-chief of the garrison, made a brave
resistance, and Saig5 Takamori was forced to enter
on a wearisome siege. He received support in
money from the prefect of the district of Kagoshima,
so that he was able to increase his army to 20,000
men. But soon Prince Arisugawa-no-miya marched
against him with the whole imperial army.
A battle took place near Kumamoto on the hill
of Tabaruzaka in which Saigo was defeated, and
some of the best leaders of the rebel army like
ii2 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Shinowara, fell. The siege of Kumamoto was raised
soon after this defeat. When the rebels were
defeated after severe fighting at several fortresses,
Takamori and his faithful adherents returned to
Kago*hima where they intrenched themselves on
the hill of Schiroyama, situated near the town of
Kagoshima. There on the morning of September
24th they were defeated by the imperial army after
a final desperate struggle. SaigS Kirino, and other
leaders committed suicide. The victory of the
imperial troops put an end to the danger of rebellion
by those opposed to the new system of government.
The tragic end of Takamori roused deep sympathy
throughout the country both in friend and foe. A
great personality died with him. He understood in
a degree rarely seen, how to live and die for his great
patriotic ideas, impossible to realize though they
were. Not less than 40,000 men had taken up arms
for him in the last war. His defeat cost the
government a great expenditure of strength. They
had placed in the field against him 58,000 men of
whom 6,200 were killed and 9,500 wounded.
CHAPTER III
INTRODUCTION OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT
We have already stated that a period of enlighten-
ment followed the abolition of the feudal system in
Japan, for which the absolute government was
systematically responsible. By its means, European
intellectual life took firm root in Japan. Simul-
taneously with the introduction of compulsory edu-
cation and the extension of the system of elementary
schools, numerous high schools were established in
which European languages, especially English, were
taught. English books were read, and Japanese
students went every year to Europe and returned to
their homes full of European ideas. And thus con-
stitutional ideas and methods found favour, but more
among educated persons like the higher officials than
among the masses of the people.
The government made reforms before they were
especially demanded or even understood by the
people. In 1875 they instituted a Senate with
regular sessions, composed of distinguished and cap-
able men, and also an annual meeting of directors
of districts. Both assemblies were of an advisory
214 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
character. In 1879 district councils were instituted
in each district, and they were responsible for an
essential part of the financial administration and the
imposition of taxes in their districts.
But gradually the new political ideas penetrated
to the people themselves, and the demand for con-
stitutional government became more insistent.
Numerous petitions were presented to the senate
concerning the revision of the commercial treaties,
and the removal of the special tribunals of the foreign
consulates. Different political parties were formed :
1. The Jiyuto, the liberal party which demanded
greater personal freedom. Its founder was the former
councillor, Itugaki Taisuke, who had resigned with
Saig5 Takamori. 2. The Kaishinto, the progressive
party, the less radical party which demanded national
progress rather than the liberty of the individual.
Its founder was the councillor, Okuma Shigenobu,
who had also resigned, and later was to come
forward as minister. 3. The Rikkenteiseito, the con-
stitutional imperial government party which held
conservative views ; it wanted a constitution but felt
that the time for constitutional government had not
yet arrived. That party had only existed for a short
time. At the same time as this formation of parties,
the press made great progress and the demands of
public opinion were more definitely expressed.
These developments resulted in the following
imperial decree of October, 1881 :
t( My family has been in uninterrupted possession
of the government of this country for over 2,500
CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 215
years. I have completely restored the imperial power
which suffered diminution in the middle ages, and
have re-united the whole Empire. It is my wish to
give my people a system of constitutional govern-
ment which shall be accepted and protected by my
successors. The Senate and the assembly of
directors of districts instituted in 1875 were a pre-
paration for this. But the time is not yet ripe for the
introduction of such a system. European civilization
must first be more widely spread and more firmly
rooted. But I promise that in the 23rd Meiji year,
1890, a parliament shall be opened. Let the officials
and the people prepare for it."
In 1882 the Emperor sent the councillor, I to
Hirobumi, to Europe to study the different European
constitutions. He returned to Japan in 1884, an<3 a
beginning was made to work out great government
reforms.
In 1885 a thorough change was made in the official
apparatus of the imperial central government. The
Dajokan, that had been restored in 1869 was
abolished, and the central government was modelled
on the European ministries. A President (Naikaku-
Sori-Daijin) was at the head of the following
departments: 1. Home Office (Naimu-sho). 2. Foreign
Office (Gaimu-sho). 3. The Treasury (Okura-sho).
4. War Office (Rikugun-sho). 5. The Admiralty
(Kaigun-sho). 6. Department of Justice (Shiho-sho).
7. Board of Education (Mombu-sho). 8. Board of
Agriculture and Trade (Noshomu-sho). 9. Board of
Communications and Public Works (Teishin-shS).
216 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
The Senate instituted in 1875 was abolished, and the
Emperor formed a privy council of men who had
won distinction in the service of the State. The
regular sittings of the district assembly also ceased,
and it lay in future with the minister for Home
Affairs to summon it for the purpose of advice in
specially important matters.
In 1888 the administration of the communes under-
went reform.
The proclamation of the new constitution which was
awaited by the people with great anxiety was made
on February nth, 1889.
It instituted two chambers, the House of Lords
and the House of Representatives of the people.
The two chambers had the rights of regular sessions
of imposing taxes, of legislation, of petition and of
interpellation. The Emperor held the right of
summoning, proroguing or dissolving both chambers,
of setting aside their decisions or assisting them with
the power of the law. This constitution still holds
good.
The House of Lords-, so ran the decree, was to
consist of: 1. Princes of the imperial family over
20 years of age. 2. All princes and marquises over
25 years of age. 3. One fifth of the three other classes
of nobles elected by themselves. The right of voting
belonged only to those who had completed their 25th
year. 4. 45 citizen delegates. The 15 richest men
of each district elected a delegate, the age of 30
being the lowest both for elected and electors. The
delegate was elected to serve for seven years. 5. Of
CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 217
a certain number of learned and capable men chosen
by the Emperor according to his pleasure. The
number of the members of the House of Lords was
not to exceed 300.
The House pf Representatives of the people, the
decree stated, was to be directly elected. The
electoral franchise was to be equal but not universal.
Only those who paid 15 l En in direct taxes and
were over 25 years of age could vote. The members
who numbered 300 a were elected for 4 years.
Two important reforms were introduced before
the beginning of the elections. A new legal con-
stitution was decreed, February 18th, 1890, and a
new civil code was published on February 21st.
The elections for the House of Representatives were
held July, ist-3rd, 1890. The result was favourable
to the government. The Emperor opened both
Chambers on November 29th, and thus in 1890 a
new era again began for Japan.
1 Lowered later to 10 En.
•Raised to 370 in 1890.
CHAPTER IV
RELATIONS OF JAPAN WITH RUSSIA AND WITH
KOREA
We have seen how at the end of the Tokugawa
Sh5gunate the Russians had penetrated as far as
the northern frontier of Japan, and in spite of the
opposition of the Shogunate government had taken
possession of a part of the islands of Saghalien and
Kurile. Shortly before its fall the Shogunate
asserted its readiness to recognize the 50th parallel
of north latitude as its boundary. But the Russian
government did not agree. In 1875, however, the
two powers came to an agreement by which Russia
received the whole of Saghalien, and Japan the
Kurile islands.
After the restoration of the imperial power in
Japan, there was, as we have also seen, a strong
agitation for war with Korea. The government was
not in favour of it, considering the country not yet
sufficiently prepared to risk the chances of so
hazardous a foreign enterprise. But the Korean
question was soon to become again acute. For the
government of Korea which refused to open their
ports to foreigners, and fired at French and American
RELATIONS WITH RUSSIA AND KOREA 219
men of war, were too proud to receive a Japanese
embassy, and made great encroachments on Japan.
In 1895 a Japanese man of war sailed past the
Korean island of Koka, and was fired at from the
battery of the island. An attack followed and the
Japanese took the island. The success of the
Japanese arms worked wonders. The Korean
government contented themselves with entering into
diplomatic relations with Japan, and concluding a
commercial treaty by which the port of Fusan, and
later those of Tschemulpo and Gensan, were open to
Japan. The United States and the European
governments made similar treaties with Korea.
Hitherto the government of Korea had been
carried on by Tai-Won-Kun, a man hostile to reform,
for his son, King Ri-Ki, who was a minor. When he
came of age and took over the reins of government
in agreement with his wife, a member of the powerful
aristocratic family, Min, he directed his efforts to
obtain absolute independence, and to remove
Tai-Won-Kun's influence from all departments of
the government. The contrast was the more
acute since he sought to introduce reforms on
the Japanese model. When for that purpose he
invited some Japanese officers to visit the country,
Tai-Won-Kun was so exasperated that he collected
an army of discontented soldiers, stormed the royal
palace, and massacred the Japanese officers. The
house of the Japanese embassy was burnt down, and
the Japanese envoys only escaped with their lives,
and fled to Nagasaki in an English ship.
j2o A HISTORY OF JAPAN
But a change in the conduct of affairs at court
took place when a Japanese man of war appeared at
Tschemulpo and demanded satisfaction for the
Japanese embassy. Fear of war with Japan shook
Tai-Won-Kun's determination, he left the palace and
fled to Peking. The young king apologized to Japan
and permitted her to place two companies of soldiers
at Seoul. And the Korean government paid an
indemnity of ^"50,000.
China now interfered, and also placed two
companies of soldiers at Seoul, as Japan could not
be permitted to strengthen her position in Korea.
The rivalry between the Japanese and Chinese
troops continually increased, and two parties corres-
ponding to the rival nations were formed at the
Korean court: the Jidaito1 which was re-actionary and
leaned to China, and the Dokuritsut52 which
held progressive views and leaned to Japan. In
December, 1884, it came to open hostility. The
DokuritsutS attacked members of the Min family
who had been disloyal to their friendship with Japan,
and had joined with the Jidaita party. Thereupon
hostilities immediately broke out between the
Japanese and Chinese garrisons which ended badly
for the Japanese. The Japanese embassy was burnt
down (1884).
But Japan made a protest, and the minister for
Foreign Affairs went in person to Korea. The
1 Ji= obedient, dai*= great power i.e. China, to *= party.
%i.e. independence.
RELATIONS WITH RUSSIA AND KOREA a*i
Korean government made amends, promised to
rebuild the Japanese embassy and to pay an
indemnity.
In order also to come to a settlement with China,
the Japanese ambassador It5 Hirobumi went to
Tientsin where he entered into negociations with the
Chinese Ambassador Li-Hung-Tschang. The Treaty
of Tientsin was concluded between the two powers,
18th April, 1885. It enacted : 1. Recognition of the
independence of Korea. 2. Withdrawal of the
Chinese and Japanese troops. 3. Obligation of the
two powers to come to an agreement together
concerning all future action in Korea.
But the hostility between China and Japan in
regard to Korea was not ended by that treaty, and
the last article contained the germ of fresh conflicts.
CHAPTER V
THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR
The Chinese government had no intention of taking
the Treaty of Tientsin seriously. They considered
that their supremacy over Korea still held good, and
continued to interfere considerably in the domestic
affairs of the country.
When in April, 1894, the T5kugat5l rebelled, and
the Korean government could not put them down,
China sent troops to Korea. That proceeding com-
pelled Japan to do the same. Four thousand men
were landed at Yen-Tschuan, not far from Seoul, on
June 1 2th. The Chinese government informed Japan
that their troops were not required, as China had
already restored order. The Japanese government
referred to the Treaty of Tientsin, and proposed that
with the assistance of China, reforms should be
carried out in Korea by which the country should be
freed from the oppression of the nobles and from the
extortions of corrupt officials. By that way alone
could the improvement of the impoverished nation
be assured.
1 To = oriental, Gaku = learning, To = party.
THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR 233
China refused the proposition without closer con-
sideration, and sent more troops by sea to Asan
(Gazan) in order to shut up the Japanese army in
Seoul and destroy it.
Then a Japanese squadron of 8 ships sailed out and
cruised about on the high seas before Asan in order
to capture any further troops that China might send.
On July 25th, it came up with two Chinese ships by the
island of Pfhung-d5 (Hoto) near Asan. The Chinese
fired the first shot ; a fight took place that ended
with the flight of the Chinese ships. Soon after the
Japanese squadron again came up with two Chinese
ships that had a large number of troops aboard. One
of them immediately surrendered. The other that
sailed under the British flag was summoned to sur-
render by Togd, the commander of the cruiser, Naniwa,
and when she refused was fired at and destroyed.
The English officers were saved, but 1200 Chinese
troops who were on board were drowned.
Meanwhile the Japanese had landed more troops
at Tschemulpo. They joined with the Japanese
regiment at Seoul, and attacked the Chinese, who had
remained at Asan waiting in vain for aid. A battle
was fought on July 27th, at the little town of
Seonghwan (Sei-kan) in which the Chinese were
defeated.
The Korean government again deserted the Chinese
cause for the side of the more powerful Japanese.
On August 1st, 1894, the Japanese government
officially declared war on China, and were enthusiastic-
ally supported by the two Houses and the people in
224 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
general. Party differences retired into the back-
ground, and the House of Representatives un-
animously granted the necessary funds.
On August 8th, the Japanese marched into Seoul
unopposed, and were received in friendly fashion by
the Korean Government which declared its readiness
to make the reforms demanded by Japan.
As the Japanese fleet made it impossible for the
Chinese to effect a landing at Asan, they had landed
troops in the north of Korea at the mouth of the
river Taidong, and occupied the fortress of Phyong-
yang which was situated in its neighbourhood.
Thither also the troops retreated after their defeat at
Song-hwan. The garrison of Phyong-yang was
increased therefore to 50,000 men. The Japanese
sent a part of their force against the fortress, under
the command of Lieutenant-General Nozu, who took
it by storm on September 15th.
Two days later, a naval battle took place near the
island of Hai-yang in the Korean bay of the Yellow
Sea. The Japanese fleet consisted of 12 ships, and
was under the command of Ito Yuko, the Chinese
fleet numbering 12 men of war and 5 torpedo boats.
The battle ended with the entire defeat of the Chinese
who lost five ships.
The chief military encampment which had been
hitherto at TSki5 was moved on September 15th to
the west, to Hiroshima, so as to be nearer the seat of
war.
Before the taking of the fortress of Phyong-yang,
Field-Marshal Yamagata Aritomo with the fifth and
THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR 225
third divisions, had crossed the lower course of the
Yalu, the river that formed the boundary between
Korea and Manchuria, and invaded Manchuria.
The Chinese had a fortress, Kiu-lien-cheng, (Kiu-ren-
jo) on the Manchurian bank of the Yalu, and a force
of 25,000 men. When on October 26th, the Japanese
began the attack, the whole of the Chinese garrison
turned tail and fled. Sixty-six cannon, more than
3,000 guns and large military stores, fell into the
hands of the Japanese.
After the capture of that fortress the second Japanese
army, consisting of the 1st and 2nd divisions under
Field-Marshal Oyama Iwao landed on the east coast
of the Liantung peninsula at the mouth of the river
Hwa-Yen (Ka-en-ko), not far from Port Arthur (Rio-
jun-K6). They immediately attacked the fortified town
of Kintschou, took it on November 6th, and so threw
open the road to Port Arthur. On November 21st,
they attacked that fortress but were repulsed. In
the night, however, the Chinese fled, and when the
Japanese renewed the attack next day, they found
no resistance. Thus the southern peninsula of Liang-
tung fell into the hands of the 2nd Japanese army
which now divided into two parts. The principal
division, under Oyama, embarked for the Shantung
peninsula, the other, under the command of Lieuten-
ant-General Yamaji marched north in order to join
the 1st army which had meanwhile penetrated farther
into Manchuria.
The next proceeding of the northern army (1st
army) was to attack the fortress of Kaiping in the
15
226 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
north of the Liantung peninsula, and they took it by
storm on January ioth, 1895.
The passage of the larger part of the 2nd army to the
Shantung peninsula was accomplished under the pro-
tection of the whole of the Japanese fleet of men of
war. The troops were landed, January 20th-25th.
They immediately proceeded to attack the fortress of
Wei-hai-wei. The whole of the Chinese war fleet,
about 30 men of war, was lying in the harbour.
They had barricaded themselves there, and despite
their numerical superiority, made no attempt to pre-
vent the passage of the Japanese southern army.
During the attack of the land force on the fortress,
the Japanese fleet blockaded the harbour. The
south-east fort fell on January 30th, and on February
2nd, the Japanese were masters of all the fortifications
situated on the mainland. During the battle they
had several times attacked the Chinese fleet with
torpedo boats, in consequence of which they suffered
some losses, but destroyed four of the enemy's men
of war. The Japanese fleet and land force now
combined in common attacks on the enemy's ships
and island forts, and by February 12th, Admiral Ting,
Commander of the Chinese fleet, was compelled to
enter into negotiations. The deed of capitulation was
signed on February 14th. Ting killed himself before
the surrender. The other ten men of war, and a
garrison of 5,134 men and 183 officers fell into the
hands of the Japanese. The prisoners had to surrender
their arms, and were then set at liberty.
While the southern army had had so brilliant a
THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR 227
success, the northern army had also been victorious.
General Nozu had replaced Yamagata who had been
forced to resign through illness. On March 4th, Nozu
had taken the town of Niu-tschwang after severe
fighting in the streets, and then crossed the Liau-ho
(Rio-ka) with the whole of the northern army. The
town of Tien-tschwang-tai (Den-sho-dai) was soon
taken, and then there were no troops to prevent the
further invasion of the Chinese empire by the Japanese.
And so the large empire of China was compelled to
make overtures of peace to little Japan.
Japan had won the admiration of the whole world
by its deeds of arms. The new era had produced
fine fruit. It was evident that the Japanese nation
understood how to assimilate the technical inventions
and the military drill of Europe and to employ it
themselves. But they did not owe their splendid
success to that alone. Their character, their long
inherited warlike spirit, was what chiefly evoked
praise in this war. It is rightly expressed by Professor
Nitobe in his " Bushido : " " It has been said that
Japan owed her success in her last war with China
to Murata rifles and Krupp guns, to her adoption of
modern systems of education — but those are only
half-truths. The most perfect guns and cannon do
not shoot of themselves. The modern system of
education does not make a hero out of a coward.
No! What won the battles on the Yalu, in Korea
and in Manchuria were the spirits of our ancestors
who guided our hands and who were enthroned in
our hearts. They are not dead, the spirits of our
228 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
warlike forefathers. For those who have eyes to see,
they are clearly visible. "
On March 19th China sent its celebrated diplomatist,
Li-Hung-Tschang, with his son to Japan. The
negociations for peace took place in Shimonoseki (or
Bakan). Japan was represented by the Prime Minister,
It5 Hirobumi, and Mutsu Munemitsu, Minister of
Foreign affairs. Peace was concluded on April 17th.
The terms of the Peace of Shimonoseki were as
follows :
1. China recognised the absolute independence of
Korea.
2. The following places were to be ceded to Japan.
a. The Lian-Tung peninsula.
b. The island of Formosa (or Taiwan) and the
small islands thereto belonging.
c. The island of Hokoto.
3. China to pay Japan a war indemnity of two
hundred million taels.
4. China to open to Japanese trade in addition to
the places already accessible Schaschi in Hupet,
Tschung-King in Szet-schnan, Sutschou in
Kiangsu and Hang-tschow in Tschekiang.
5. As guarantee for the execution of the Treaty,
China to cede the fortress of Wei-hai-wei to
Japan which was to be evacuated by Japan after
payment of the indemnity and fulfilment of all
the other conditions.
But Russia objected to these terms. She saw
obstacles to her own plans in the cession of the
THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR 229
peninsula of Lian-tung to Japan. She had already
thoughts of acquiring Port Arthur for her maritime
operations. Russia was supported at Tokio by
German and French diplomacy. Those powers
founded their objection on the fact that the garrison of
Lian-tung by Japan would threaten peace in the far
east. There was nothing left for Japan except to yield,
and full of bitter anger she saw herself deprived of the
reward for which she had so bravely fought and
which she so well deserved. Ito Hirobumi was
forced to sign the treaty on November 8th, 1895,
giving up Lian-tung to China for an increase of the
war indemnity by 30 million taels.
The germ of the Russo-Japanese war lay in this
treaty. For Japan had no idea of permanently
submitting to Russia's desire of expansion, and
waited for the time when she could meet that great
power on terms of military equality.
The possession of the island of Formosa caused
some fighting. The Chinese population of Formosa
rebelled under the leadership of the Chinese Su-
Yung-Fu, the well-known head of the " Black Flag,"
a party in China which had made so stubborn a
resistance to the invasion of Cochin China by the
French. Japan sent a large army to Formosa under
the command of Prince Kitashirakawa-no-miya
The rebellion was entirely put down by the middle of
December.
CHAPTER VI
THE REVISION OF THE COMMERCIAL TREATIES
As we have seen, the first commercial treaties were
concluded by the Shogunate government in 1858.
At a period of domestic unrest, and of a weak foreign
policy, it had granted great advantages to
foreign powers at the expense of the Japanese
Empire. The duty which Japan laid on foreign im-
ports was very low. It was, moreover, especially
derogatory and offensive to Japan that all foreigners
were subject not to the Japanese courts of justice
but to special consular courts of their own. Japan in
that matter was treated like an uncivilized nation,
and the circumstance often led to great injustice.
The treaties of 1858 were made worse for Japan
in the following years, for numerous attacks were
made on the foreigners, and in compensation Japan
had to make further concessions to the foreign powers.
It was natural that the advancement of civilization in
the Japanese nation should cause a demand for the
revision of the existing treaties.
In 1878, Terajima Munenori, minister for foreign
affairs, had approached England with a proposal of
THE COMMERCIAL TREATIES 231
revision, which England refused. In 1882 Japan
renewed her proposals, and entered into negotiations
with all the foreign powers who showed themselves
willing to make a few concessions. England pro-
posed to abolish the consular courts, and to establish
mixed courts, formed of both Japanese and foreign
judges. But the announcement of these proposals
raised a storm of opposition among the Japanese
people. Okuma Shigenobu, the foreign minister who
desired to accede to the English compromise of
mixed courts was violently attacked, and in 1889 lost
his right leg through a bomb thrown by a patriot.
The negociations therefore fell through.
It was not till August 27th, 1894, due to the
impression produced by the glorious successes of the
Japanese arms in China, that the foreign minister,
Mutsu Munemitsu was able to conclude a new
commercial treaty with England which fulfilled the
Japanese requirements. Treaties with the other
powers on a similar basis were soon concluded ; with
Germany, April 4th, 1896.
These commercial treaties abolished the consular
courts, introduced a higher protection tariff for Japan,
opened the whole country to foreigners, and set some
new ports free for trade with foreign powers. But
the qualification still held that foreigners might only
acquire a small amount of landed property, a qualifica-
tion that was not removed until 1910.
CHAPTER VII
THE CHINESE TROUBLES
The war between Japan and China made the
Eastern question and Eastern affairs a focus of
interest in Europe, and in the policy of the Great
Powers. Russia, in particular, was making every
effort to secure a firm position on the coasts of
Eastern Asia. With a vast expenditure of strength
she completed the Trans-Siberian railway. But the
other Great Powers also tried to secure influence
in the far east. In November, 1897, Germany
occupied the port of Kiau-Tshou, on the south coast
of the peninsula of Shantung, in order to have a foot-
ing for her fleet, and on March 6th, 1898, made an
agreement with the Chinese government by which the
Bay of Kiau-Tshou with the adjacent territory was
leased to the German Empire for 99 years. During
this time Russia had also been negociating with the
Chinese government, and on March 27th, 1898, con-
cluded with China a deed of conveyance for 25 years
for the south-west portion of the peninsula of Lian-
tung with Port Arthur. The treaty also allowed
Russia to continue the Trans-Siberian railway through
THE CHINESE TROUBLES 233
Manchuria to Niu-Tschwang and the ports of Port
Arthur and Ta-lien-wan (Dairen). On April 2nd,
1898, England received Wei-hai-wei on condition
that she would cede it to China when Port Arthur
again became Chinese. England took possession of
the port and the islands belonging to it and about
460 square miles of the adjacent mainland. France
would not be left out, and in the same month and
year obtained a deed of conveyance for 99 years for
the Bay of Kwan-tshou on the coast of the province
of Canton. The next year she received in addition
the island of Tung-shan and some smaller islands.
She acquired in all about 521 square miles.
These great sacrifices to which China had to consent
roused in the nation great indignation which was
directed against all foreigners. The imperial family
did nothing to suppress the movement, indeed, it
rather assisted in stirring up hatred of the foreigner.
The exasperation was keenest in the north, in the
neighbourhood of Tientsin and Peking. That district
was the seat of the so-called Boxer rebellion of
1900.
A plot was made against the foreigners, the
purpose of which was a rebellion. The members
of the conspiracy called themselves Giwadan, i.e.
peace and patriotic union. The league began
public action at the commencement of 1900. Many
foreigners, among them Japanese, soon fell victims.
The native Christians were cruelly persecuted. The
rebels destroyed the railways in every direction. In
May the German Ambassador and a secretary of the
234 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Japanese embassy were murdered. The embassies of
the Foreign Powers at Peking were besieged. The
English admiral, Sir Edward Seymour, marched to
their assistance with an army composed of European,
American and Japanese troops, but had to turn back
without doing anything, (ioth-26th June). TheChinese
government secretly supported the rebels. They
openly opposed the foreign auxiliary troops, e.g. at
the defence of the fort of Taku and of Tientsin. The
Japanese played an important part in the storming,
of the fort of Taku (June 17th) by the foreign powers
and in the righting at Tientsin (July 14th). Japan
sent the 5th division under the command of Lieu-
tenant-General Yamaguchi to the seat of war, 6th
July. The timely release of the embassies shut up
in Peking is mainly due to the speedy intervention of
this large contingent of Japanese troops (15th August.)
By the peace signed on December 22nd, 1901,
China had to pay the Foreign Powers 400,000,000
taels war indemnity.
The importance of this outbreak against the
foreigners was that it afforded Russia an opportunity
to secure a firm military footing in Manchuria. She
had been striving with all her force to carry out the
construction of the Manchurian railway, had made
expensive military settlements, and under pretext of
protecting the railway from Chinese attacks, had
located there 200,000 men. Thus Manchuria, and
also the much disputed peninsula of Liantung, were
entirely under the military power of Russia. Russia
had reaped advantages to herself out of this to her not
THE CHINESE TROUBLES 235
unwelcome rebellion as she had out of the Chino-
Japanese war. But Japan stood in the way of the
further execution of her plan of securing a great
position in the far east.
CHAPTER VIII
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
The tension between Russia and Japan had existed
ever since Russia's interference in the conditions of
the Peace of Shimonoseki between Japan and China.
The Japanese had to look on while Russia appro-
priated the booty for which they had so bravely
fought. Japan had followed with great anxiety the
expansion of the Russian power during the Boxer
rebellion. It was to be feared that Korea, where
already so much Japanese blood had been spilled and
with which Japan was so closely bound through its
history, would fall a prey to the Russian lust of
conquest. The question, in whose possession that
district was to be in the future, was one of life and
death to Japan. If Russia became lord of the Sea
of Japan, then Japan must for ever abandon the hope
of winning a position of equality among the great
powers.
Japan now came to an understanding with England
who looked on at the Russian expansion with great
misgiving. In February, 1902, the two powers con-
cluded a treaty in which they bound themselves to
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 237
stand together for the independence of China and
Korea. The treaty further stipulated that if either of
the powers was attacked by two great powers the
other should come to its assistance with all its military
forces. It was hoped by this means to frighten
Russia from making further encroachments.
Supported by her powerful ally, the Japanese
government entered into negociations with Russia.
It demanded the withdrawal of the troops from Man-
churia. But Russia had not the smallest intention of
abandoning the further prosecution of her policy ; she
sought to delay the negociations as long as possible
in order to strengthen and reinforce her troops in Man-
churia. The counter-proposals delivered at last on
October 3rd, 1903, resembled a challenge. The es-
sential points were: both powers to maintain the
independence and integrity of Korea ; Russia would
recognise Japan's interests in Korea. Japan must
undertake to place no fortifications on the Korean
road, and must acknowledge that Manchuria lay out-
side its sphere of interest. The position Russia
would hold with regard to Manchuria was not men-
tioned.
That Russia should have staked so much on her
enterprises in the far east and that she should seek to
bring about so dangerous a war is easily understood.
Great interests for the empire of the Czar were here
at stake. The success of her plans in the far east
meant an enormous increase of power for Russia.
The acquisition of Manchuria with excellent ports
both for war and commerce which were already partly
238 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
provided with expensive works, and the railway con-
nected with the European continent would have made
Russia the strongest power in the east. The mastery
of the Eastern Sea would have given her the prospect
of enormous economic profit. It would have meant
only one road for trade from the Manchurian trading
ports on the Yellow Sea to the Eastern Sea. Her
great Asiatic possessions would have been objects of
immense value. Just as for Japan this question was
one of life and death, on it depended for Russia her
future position in the world. The value of such ad-
vantages for the political power and economic life of
the empire of the Czar made it worth while to venture
on a dangerous war.
Even after the unacceptable proposals made by
Russia on October 3rd, the Japanese government
continued the negociations, but as was to be expected
without success. On February 6th, 1904, a final note
was sent to the government at St. Petersburg, break-
ing off the negociations, and declaring that Japan
would now proceed as was necessary for the protec-
tion of her threatened position, and the safety of
her rights and interests. Kurino, the Japanese am-
bassador at St. Petersburg, was recalled on February
8th. The official declaration of war followed on
February 10th.
The Japanese fleet had already on February 6th,
sailed under the command of Vice-Admiral Togo
Heihachiro from the port of Sasebo to the south-west
coast of Korea. Arrived there, Rear-Admiral Uriu
separated from it with a division of cruisers in order
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 239
to take possession of Tschemulpo where two Russian
ships were lying-. The chief division under Togo
went on to Port Arthur.
The greater part of the Port Arthur Russian fleet
lay in the outer roadstead, for the inner harbour was
not sufficiently ready. It did not expect to be at-
tacked and had taken no precautions. In the nights
8th to 9th February, the Japanese made a successful
torpedo attack by which two big Russian ironclads
and a cruiser were damaged.
Rear-Admiral Uriu was also successful at
Tschemulpo. In the night 8th to 9th February he
secretly landed two regiments in the neighbourhood
of the port which marched immediately to the capital,
Seoul. The next day he forced the Russian cruisers
to a fight, and they fled back into the harbour. The
Russian commander sank both ships. The Japanese
took possession of Tschemulpo where it was intended
to land the first Japanese army.
Admiral Togo tried to blockade the harbour of Port
Arthur by sinking old steamships, bombarded it,
made torpedo attacks on it, and laid mines. But
these attempts did not bring the desired result. The
Russian admiral Stark was recalled, and Admiral
Makarov appointed Commander-in-chief at Port
Arthur. On the morning of April 13th there was a
fight between Russian and Japanese torpedo boats.
Admiral Makarov sent out the whole of his fleet.
But when he eame in sight of the Japanese fleet
drawn up for the attack, and recognised their
superiority, he gave the order to retreat. His
24o A HISTORY OF JAPAN
flagship Petropavlovsk struck a mine, and im-
mediately sank. Makarov and all his crew were
killed. A second ironclad was also considerably
damaged by a mine during the retreat. Later Togo
succeeded in completely blockading the harbour.
In February the Russian cruisers lying at
Vladivostock sailed over to the coast of Japan and
destroyed a Japanese merchant vessel. In return
Admiral Kamimura went over to Vladivostock with
some cruisers, and bombarded it on March 6th. Not
much was thereby gained, and he soon departed. In
the further course of the war Vladivostock played no
essential part.
Immediately after the victory at Tschemulpo the
1 2th division embarked at Nagasaki and on February
17th landed at Tschemulpo, and at once marched to
Seoul. The Emperor of Korea made an alliance
with the Japanese and granted them the right of
making what use they pleased of Korea so long as
the war lasted. More troops were landed at
Tschemulpo and at Tshinampo, situated to the
north of Tschemulpo. By the end of April the
Japanese had three divisions on the Yalu, the river
dividing Korea from Manchuria. They formed the
first Japanese army. General Kuroki was in
command.
On February 20th, Kuropatkin, formerly minister
of war, took over the command of the Russian
troops. He arrived on March 27th, at Liau-yang,
the head-quarters of the Russian army in Manchuria.
General Stossel was governor of Port Arthur.
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 241
The Russians, as the Japanese had been doing,
pushed on troops to the Yalu. There, on the
morning of May 1st, a fierce battle was fought which
ended in the defeat and retreat of the Russians.
Their losses were: 30 officers and 581 men killed;
31 officers and 1,022 men wounded; 2 officers
and 524 men taken prisoner by the Japanese. The
Japanese losses were : 5 officers and 180 men killed ;
25 officers and 690 men wounded. Military supplies,
21 cannon and 8 machine guns fell into the hands
of the victors.
The first victory over a well equipped modern
European army in the open field raised the courage
of the Japanese.
Soon after the battle of the Yalu, Japanese troops
were landed at Pi-Asje-wo, a short distance from
Port Arthur. On May 5th the 1st, 3rd and 4th
divisions, and the 1st field artillery brigade disem-
barked there. Their aim was to act in concert with
the Japanese fleet against Port Arthur. The Russians
had assembled about 27,000 men in the town of Kin-
Tshou for the protection of Port Arthur. The
Japanese directed a fierce artillery fire against it,
stormed it on May 25th and took it after severe
fighting. Sixty-eight cannon and 10 machine guns
came into their possession. The Russians retired in the
direction of Port Arthur. On May 28th the Japanese
pushed forward a division to the hill of Hou-na-kwan-
ling, and therefore General Stossel retreated to Port
Arthur.
By the Czar's orders Kuropatkin sent a division of
16
242 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
the Manchurian army to the assistance of the hard
pressed fortress. To prevent it joining with the
garrison of Port Arthur, the Japanese sent the 4th
division, the first field artillery brigade, and later the
3rd division under the command of General Oku,
by forced marches to the north. They came up with
the Russian auxiliary force at Toku-ri-ji. A fierce
battle ensued in which the Japanese were again the
victors. The Russians suffered great losses and
retreated to the chief army at Liau-yang. General
Oku went after them in hot pursuit. Since their
departure from Kin-Tshou, his troops formed the
second Japanese army which henceforth acted in-
dependently against the Manchurian army.
The troops that had remained at Port Arthur
under General Nogi which now formed the third
Japanese army, consisted of the 1st and 1 ith divisions,
and was soon augmented by the 9th division, the 1st
and 4th reserve brigade, the 2nd field artillery
brigade and a regiment of heavy artillery. At the
end of June they- concentrated their energy on the
siege of Port Arthur.
A fourth Japanese army was formed of the rest of
the troops that had left their native land, under the
command of General Nozu. Immediately on landing
at Ta-ko-shan, it marched north and took part in the
operations against the Manchurian army which
continued to hold the defensive at Liau-yang. Field-
Marshal Oyama was commander-in-chief of the three
united Japanese armies.
The three armies (I, II, IV,) began the attack on
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 243
Liau-yang from different sides on August 30th. The
victory was again to the Japanese. General
Kuropatkin saved the greater part of his army by
a cautious retreat for which he deserves every praise.
The Japanese marched into Liau-yang on September
7th. The number of killed and wounded on the
Russian side was 1 6,000, on the Japanese 17,000. The
latter gained a large amount of booty.
The Russians had retreated in the direction of
Mukden, and took up a position to the south of the
river Hun-ho. The Japanese pursued them and
intrenched themselves opposite in the plain of San-ho.
A battle was begun on October 9th which lasted
until October 18th. After a terrible struggle, Oyama
and his three armies were victorious. The Rus-
sians lost 800 officers and 45,000 men, and the
Japanese had 15,878 killed and wounded together.
After this great defeat the Russians retreated to
Mukden.
Meanwhile the third Japanese army was spending
all its strength on the siege of Port Arthur. At the
first general attack on August 19th, the western fort,
Banriu, was taken, at the second on September 19th,
the forts of Stossel and Kuropatkin fell into their
hands, and the third, on October 26th, gave them the
fort, Keikan-San, on. the east.
Their bold proceedings at Port Arthur led to great
losses on the Japanese side. But they could not
avoid the sacrifice. For, as we shall see, Russia's
Atlantic fleet was on the way, and everything
depended on the taking of Port Arthur before its
244 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
arrival, so that the Japanese sea-power should have
the upper hand.
Admiral Togo encouraged the land forces to do
their utmost.
After the third general attack, the Japanese
succeeded in gaining possession of a hill about 600
feet high, whence the Russian ships that lay in the
admirable harbour safe from Japanese attacks, could
be carefully watched. The Japanese brought up
heavy artillery behind the hill, and shooting under
cover, on November 30th, destroyed the whole of the
Russian Port Arthur fleet.
The fourth general attack was made on December
26th when some important forts were taken. These
successes of the Japanese forced General Stossel to
capitulate. In recognition of their courage, the
victors allowed the Russian officers to keep their
swords, and to return to their native land.
The fortress was surrendered on January 1st, 1905.
The Japanese came into possession of 641 prisoners,
528 cannon, 206,734 artillery shells, 36,598 rifles,
5,450,240 bullets, etc. But these great military stores
counted little beside the importance of the possession
of the harbour for the further prosecution of the naval
war which through the despatch of Russia's Atlantic
fleet to the seat of war, entered on a new phase.
After the battle in the plain of San-ho, the opposing
forces consisted of 300,000 Russians and 260,000
Japanese. The Japanese were reinforced by the
third army which after the taking of Port Arthur
marched north against the Manchurian army. The
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 245
four Japanese armies united on March 1st, 1905, in
storming Mukden. The battle, which is one of the
most splendid in the world's history, lasted for 10
days, and was fought on both sides with unexampled
self-sacrifice and stubbornness. 120,000 Russians
fell in the fight, and 40,000 were taken prisoner. The
Japanese who fell numbered 41,222. On March 10th,
the Japanese marched into Mukden in triumph.
The greater part of the Russian Atlantic fleet
under command of Admiral Rovjestensky left
Libau on October 12th, 1904, for the seat of war in
order to go to the assistance of Port Arthur. The
capture of the fortress and the destruction of the fleet
here struck a severe blow at this maritime enterprise,
but did not decide its fate. It was possible for the
Russian squadron to destroy the Japanese fleet which
equalled theirs in number, or at least to reach
Vladiwostok and thence to conduct surprise attacks
on the Japanese coast, and endanger the transports of
Japan on their way to the seat of war.
Part of the Russian fleet took the route round the
Cape of Good Hope, and another part that through
the Mediterranean. At the request of Admiral
Rovjestensky, the Czar despatched the rest of the
Atlantic fleet on February 5th, and it took the
shorter Mediterranean route. The Russian squadrons
met off the coast of Annan, and proceeded together
to the north. The Japanese fleet had secretly taken
up its position in the straits of Korea. Vladivostok
could be reached by three routes : through the straits
of Korea, through the straits of Tsugaru between the
246 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
islands of Honto and Ezo, and through the straits of
Soya, between the islands of Ezo and Saghalien. It
was impossible for the Japanese navy to defend all
three straits at one time, for they would not when
divided have been equal to the Russian fleet. Togo
reckoned that the enemy, through the strictest secrecy
regarding the Japanese position, would take the
nearest route through the straits of Korea. His
assumption was correct. The Russians had no
knowledge of the whereabouts of the Japanese fleet,
and proceeded up the straits of Korea.
At 5 a.m. in the morning of May 27th, one of the
guardships posted in the south, sent the following
message to Admiral Togo by wireless telegraphy :
u The enemy's squadron has been sighted at point
No. 203. The enemy is apparently steering towards
the eastern passage." Between 10 and 11 o'clock the
cruiser squadron under Vice-Admiral Kataoka, the
division under Rear-Admiral Togo Masaji, and
the division under Rear-Admiral Dewa came into
touch with the enemy between the islands of Iki
and Tsushoma. They did not answer their fire
and contented themselves by telegraphing every
moment all details of the enemy's position to
Admiral T5go. Thus Togo knew before he came
in sight of the enemy's fleet that its fighting line
consisted of the whole strength of the second and
third Atlantic squadron which were accompanied by
about seven special service ships, that the ships were
formed in two fore and aft lines, that the chief strength
was at the head of the right line and the service ships
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 247
were at the end, and that the whole armada was steer-
ing north-east at a speed of about 1 2 knots. Togo could
now make plans in accordance, and give his orders.
The battle was begun at 2 o'clock by the Japanese,
near Okinoshima. Togo signalled to all ships in
sight the following message : " The existence of the
Empire depends on this battle. Japan expects this
day the courage and energy of every officer and every
man in the fleet." Togd with the chief strength, the
Dewa and Uriu divisions, went against the head of
the left column ; the cruiser squadron and the Togo
(Masaji) squadron steered south and attacked the
enemy in the rear. The Russian fleet fell into dis-
order, the two columns came to blows, and sought in
vain to free themselves and escape from the net pre-
pared for them by the Japanese. The battle lasted
till sunset. At 20 minutes past seven Togo ordered
his fleet to assemble at the island of Ullong. The
issue of the fight was decidedly favourable to the
Japanese. A large number of the finest Russian
ships were sunk, the rest were almost without excep-
tion badly damaged. The Japanese suffered no losses.
In the night the destroyers and torpedo boats began
to be active, and showed great boldness ; some of
them approached so close to the Russian ships that
the later could not shoot at them. The Japanese did
an enormous amount of damage, but themselves only
lost 3 torpedo-vessels. The next morning (May 28th)
the Japanese fleet with its whole strength continued
the work of destruction. At half-past 10 the Russian
fleet was entirely surrounded at a point 18 nautical
248 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
miles south of Takenoshima. Soon after the Japanese
opened fire, Rear-Admiral Nebugatov declared the
surrender of the 4 ships under his command. The
battle against the rest continued until noon. Then the
destroyer Bjedovie, on board which was Admiral
Rovjestensky and his staff, hoisted the white flag.
Of the whole Russian fleet which had consisted of 38
ships, only two returned to Vladivostok. Of the
rest, 23 were sunk, 7 were captured and 6 disarmed at
Shanghai. The Japanese lost only the 3 torpedo-
boats.
This brilliant and remarkable naval victory1 sig-
nified not only the* end of the Russian fleet, but also
the end of the severe and momentous struggle.
In spite of her heavy losses and of the revolution
that had taken place at home during the war, the
great Russian empire was not by a long way at the
end of her power. It was not difficult for Russia
quickly to reinforce and increase her Manchurian
army, and in spite of the defeats she had suffered, to
make a successful stand against victorious but
exhausted Japan. But the terrible impression of the
last Japanese naval victory deprived Russia of
courage to prosecute the war farther and inclined her
to consider proposals for peace.
Soon after the naval battle in the Sea of Japan,
Mr. Roosevelt, President of the United States, on
June 9th, 1905, invited Japan and Russia to negociate
1 Called in Japan " Naval battle in the Sea of Japan," in
Europe " the battle of Tsushima."
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 249
conditions of peace. The proposal was accepted by
both nations. Japan appointed as her pleni-
potentiaries Ko-Mura Jutard, minister for foreign
affairs, and Takahira Kogoro, her ambassador to
the United States. Russia sent Witte a former
minister of finance, and Rosen, formerly ambassador
to Japan, to the peace conference. The plenipo-
tentiaries met at Portsmouth, Maine, in the United
States, on August 9th, 1905, and after 11 meetings
peace was signed on August 29th.
The most important articles of the Peace of
Portsmouth are :
Russia recognises that from the political, military
and administrative standpoints, Japan's interests in
Korea are supreme, and undertakes not to oppose
the measures of government, protection and control
which Japan deems necessary in agreement with the
Korean government to take (Art 2).
Both powers shall withdraw their troops from
Manchuria which is to remain Chinese (Art. 3).
The Russian rights of rental of Port Arthur, Ta-
lien, and the abutting land and sea to be surrendered
entirely to Japan (Art 4).
The Manchurian railway to be divided between
Russia and Japan at Kuang-Tscheng-Tse. Both
divisions to be used only in the interests of trade and
industry ; Russia keeps all the rights acquired for the
construction of the railway through her stipulations
with China (Art. 6).
Russia and Japan are bound to join their roads at
Kuang-Tscheng-Tse (Art. 7).
17
250 A HISTORY OF JAPAN
Russia relinquishes the southern part of Saghalien
to the 50th degree of latitude to Japan (Art. 8).
The Japanese nation regarded the peace, con-
sidering their achievement, as extremely unfavourable.
They were especially disappointed at the lack of any
war indemnity. The angry excitement in Tokio rose
so high that the police buildings were burnt down.
But although the peace was a disappointment to
the victorious nation, it meant a great extension of
Japanese power and influence. The Japanese
gained a territory for their civilization and their
economic activities measuring two-thirds of the
extent of their empire hitherto. A stream of
Japanese emigrants at once poured into the new
territory; by May 1910 there were 157,000 Japanese
in Korea. Immediately after the conclusion of
peace, Japan appointed a Resident-General to
govern the country, and he ruled it actually his own
way, though formally in the name of the Emperor of
Korea. Attempts on the part of Korea to restore
the independence of the empire were unsuccessful
and at the moment of concluding this history,1 the
Japanese can, by the treaty concluded with Russia
in June, 19 10, incorporate the Korean empire with
their own without any opposition from the Powers.
1 August 29, 1 9 10.
INDEX
Abe Masahiro, 178, 179
Abe-no-Hirafu, the general, 41
Abe-no-Nakamaro, the scholar, 49
Abe-no-Yoritoki, 67
Abe Tadaaki, 165
Achiki, 21
Achino-mi, 21
Adams, William, 157
Aga-no-gawa, the river, 197
Ainus, the, I, 2, 12, 13, 41, 51
Aizu, town of, 141, 197
Akamatsu family, the 112
Akamatsu Norimura, 97, 102, 103
Akechi Mitsuhide, 132
Akitsuki, 210
Alexander the Great, 31
Amako family, 122
Amakusa, island of, 162, 163
Amakuwa (Makao), 157
Amaterasu-Omikami, temple of, 147
Amaterasu-Omikami, the Sun-
goddess, 7, 8, 26
Ancestor-worship, 27
Ando Nobumasa, 183
Anegawa, the, 130
Annan, 157, 245
Antoku-Tenno, 81st Emperor, 79,
80, 81
Aoka Todasuke, 170
Arai Hakuseki, 169
Arima, 157
Arisugawa - no - miya Taruhito,
prince, 194, 195, 196, 211
Asan (Gazan), 223, 224
Asakura family, the, 130
Asai family, the, 130
Ashikaga family, the, 97, 116, 118,
120, 125, 129, 131
Ashikaga Takauji, 98, 102, 103,
104, 105, 106
Ashikaga Yoshiaki, 119, 130, 131
As:hikaga Yoshiharu, 119
Ashikaga Yoshihide, 119
Ashikaga Yoshitane, 119
Atlantic Ocean, 158
Atsuchi, castle of, 133
Awa, province of, 121
Bakan, fort of, 185
Bakan straits, 185
Balz, 1
Bathu, 91
Benkei, 87
Biwa, lake of, 42
Boxer rebellion, 233, 234, 236
Buddhism, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31,
48, 53. 93, 94, 125, 131, 132,
163
Bushido, 151, 152, 153, 154, 203,
227
Cape of Good Hope, 157, 245
Chamberlain, I
Chang-an, capital of Chinese
Empire, 51
Chikamatsu Monzaimon, the
dramatist, 166
China, 18, 23, 30, 31, 33, 41, 42,
45, 46, 49, 53, 65, 91, 117,
124, 125, 126, 137, 138, 139,
1^9, 209, 211, 220, 221, 223,
227, 228, 229, 232, 233, 236,
237
Chinese, language of the, 2
Chin-han (Shinkan), 17
Chosen (or Chosun) dynasty, 124
Chosun (Ch5sen), state of, 17
Chosokabe Motochika, 122, 135
Chuai-Tenno, 14th Emperor, 16
Chukio-Tenno, 85th Emperor, 89,
90
Cochin China, 229
Confucius, bible of, 21
Confucius, teaching of, 165, 166
252
INDEX
Daigagu-ji, temple of, 97
Daigo-Tenno, 60th Emperor, 59,
60, 64, 65
Dan-no-ura Sea, 81
Date Masamune, 122, 158
Dewa, province of, 167
Dokid, Buddhist priest, 48, 49
Doncho of Korea, Buddhist priest,
. 32
Dsingiskhan, 91
Dutch, the, 156, 157, 164, 171, 176
Echigo, province of, 121, 197
Edo, 141
Emishi, 85
England, 179, 182, 230, 231, 233,
236
Enomoto Takeaki, 198
Enriakuji, temple of, 73, 130
Eskimos, the, 2
Eto Shimpei, 208, 209
Ezo (Hokkaido), island of, 1, 176,
177, 179, 198, 205, 246
Finns, language of the, 2
Formosa (Taiwan), 137, 159, 160,
209, 228, 229
France, 182, 233
Fujiwara family, the 43, 52, 57, 58,
59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 67, 71, 72,
73,76,86,89,93, in, 135,188
Fujiwara Fubito, 44
Fujiwara Hidesato, 63
Fujiwara Ietaka, the poet, 93
Fujiwara Kanera, the poet, 117
Fujiwara Michinaga, 64, 65
Fujiwara Narichika, 78
Fujiwara Nobuzane, the painter, 95
Fujiwara Shunzei, the poet, 93
Fujiwara Sumitomo, 62, 63
Fujiwara Tadahira, 62
Fujiwara Takaie, 66
Fujiwara Teika, the poet, 93
Fushimi-Tenno, 92nd Emperor, 96
Fushimi, town of, 135
Fusan, port of, 219
GemmiS-Tenno, the Empress (43rd
Emperor), 47, 51
Genkai Sea, 17
Gensan, 219
Gensho, the Empress (44th
Emperor), 47, 48
Germany, 232
Go-Daigo-Tenno, 96th Emperor,
97, 98, 101, 102, 103, 104,
105, 106
Go-Fukakusa-Tenno, 89th Emper-
or, 96, 97
Go-Fushimi- Tenno, 93rd Emperor,
96
Go-Horikawa-Tenno, 73rd Emper-
or, 90
Go-Kameyama-Tenno, 99th Emper-
or, 106
Go ■ Kashiwahara - Tenno, 104th
Emperor, 118, 120
Go-Komatsu-Tenno, 100th Emper-
or, 106
Go-Mitsunoo-Tenno, 108th Emper-
or, 149
Go-Murakami-Tenno, 97th Emper-
or, 105
Go-Nara-Tenn5, 105th Emperor,
118, 120
Go-Reizei-Tenno, 67
Goriokaku, fortress of, 198
Go-Saga-Tenno, 88th Emperor, 96
Go-Shirakawa-Tenno, 77th
Emperor, 75, 77, 78, 80
Go-Sunjo-Tenno, 71st Emperor,
71
Go-Toba-Tenno, 82nd Emperor,
80, 85, 89, 90, 93
Go-Tsuchimikado-Tenno, 103rd
Emperor, 118, 120
Go-Uda-Tenno, 91st Emperor, 92,
96
Goto Yujo, 117
Gregorian calendar, introduction of,
206
Hagi, 210
Hai-yang, island of, 224
INDEX
253
Hakata, bay of, 91
Hakodate, 180
Hakone, mountains of, 102
Hamada Yahei, 159
Ham-gyung, 138
Han (Kan), 17
Hang-tschou, 228
Hara, fortress of, 163
Harakiri, 152, 154, 197
Harris Kam, 180
Hasekura Tsunenaga, 158
Hataka, town of, 126
Hatakeyama family, the no, 113,
IJ9
Hayashi Daigaku-no-kami, 166
Hayashi Doshun, 165
Hayasui, straits of, 9
Heguri, 27
Heiankio, 51
Heijei-Tenno, 51st Emperor, 51, 52
Hekiteikan, 138
Hidachi, province of, 62, 63, 1 70
Hidetada, 145, 149
Hidetata, 162
Hidetsugu, 137
Hideyori, 146
Hieda-no-Ares, 48
Hiei, hill of, 102, 104
Hiei, temple of, 53
Higashiyama-Tenno, 113th
Emperor, 170
Hikohohodemi-no-Mikoto, grand-
father of the 1st Emperor, 8
Hiogo (Kobe), 103, 180, 199
Hirata Atsutane, 174
Hirato, island of, 126, 157
Hiroshima, 224
Hishikawa Moronobu, the painter,
l67
Hiuga, province of, 8
H6j5 family, the, 87, 89, 98, 121,
140
Hojo Soun (or Ise Naganji), 121
Hojo Takatoki, 97, 98
Hojo Tokimasa, 77, 79, 88
Hoj5 Tokimune, 91, 92, 96
HOjo Tokiyuki, 102
Hojo Yasutoki, 90
Hojo Yoshitoki, 88, 89, 90
Hoki, province of, 98
Hokoto, 228
Holland, 179, 182, 198
Honen-Shonin, Buddhist priest, 94
Hou-na-kwanling, 241
Honnoji, fortress of, 132
Honto, island of, 7, 246
Hoodo, royal temple of, 66
Horigoe, 115
Horiuji, temple of, 31, 32
Hosokawa family, the no
Hosokawa Katsumoto, 112
Hosokawa Masamoto, 118
Hosokawa Yoriyuki, 109
Hotta Masahiro, 180, 181
Hun-ho, the liver, 243
Hupet, 228
Hwa-Yen (Ka-en-ko), 225
I
Iemitsu, 147, 148, 162
Ieharu, 172
Ienari, 172, 173
Iesada, 179
Ieshige, 172
Ietsugu, 170
Ieyasu, 169, 170
Ieyoshi, 178
Ii Naosuke, 181, 182
Iki, island of, 66
Ikoma, mountain of, 9
Imagawa family, the, 140
Imagawa Yoshimoto, 1 29
India, 31, 137, 157
Indian Ocean, 157
Ino-Chukei, 177
Insignia of the Japanese Empire, 8
Iruka, 35
Ise, province of, 14
Ise Naganji (or Hojo Soun), 115
Ishida Mitsunari, 141, 142
Itagaki Taisuke, 208
Itakura Shigemasa, the general, 163
ItO Hirobumi, 215, 221, 228, 229
Ito Yuko, 224
Ito Jinsai, 166
Iwai, 25
Iwakura Tomomi, 208
Iwasa Matabei, the painter, 167
Izanagi-no-Mikot5, the god, 7
Izanami-no-Mikoto, the goddess, 7
18
254
INDEX
Izu, province of, 77, 79, 115, HI,
179
Izumo, province of, 7
Java, 157
Jesuits, the, 100, 161, 162, i7i,
176
Jido-Tenno, the Empress (41st Em-
peror), 48
Ji-mio-in, 97
Jimmu-Tenn5, 1st Emperor, 8, 9,
10
Jingii-Kogo, wife of the 14th Em-
peror, 16, 17, 18, 27
Jocho, 66
Jodo-Shu, Buddhist sect, 94
Joei Year, 90
Joshin, the tribe, 66
Josten, Jan, 157
Junnin, 47th Emperor, 47
Juntoku-Tenno, 84th Emperor, 89,
K
Kada Azumamaro, 171, 174
Kagoshima, 126, 211, 212
Kai, province of, 13, 121, 170
Kaipmg, fortress of, 225
Kakino - moto - no - Hitomaro, the
song-writer, 50
Kamakura, 81, 85, 86, 97, 101,
102, 106, 110, 113, 114, IJ5,
118
Kameyana-Tenn5, 90th Emperor,
96
Kamimura, Admiral, 240
Kami-worship, 26
Kammu, 50th Emperor, 51
Kamogawa, the river, 73
Kamo Mabuchi, 174
Kanagawa (Yokohama), 180
Kaneiji, temple of, 196
Kano-Masanobu, the painter, 117
Kano Tanniu, the painter, 167
Kanto, plain of, 13, 81, 101, 121,
135, 140, 170
Karak or Mimana, state of, 11, 16,
17, 24, 25
Kataoka, vice-admiral, 246
Katsushika Hokusai, the painter,
173
Kato Kiyomasa, 138, 139
Katsuragi, 27
Kawachi, province of, 21, 98
Kazusa, province of, 13, 121
Keichu, Buddhist priest, 166
Keiko-Tenno, 12th Emperor, 12,
Keitai-Tenno, 26th Emperor, 3, 24
Keita, the Emperor, 27
Kemmu year, 101
Kenzo-Tenno, 23rd Emperor, 24
Khubitai-khan, 91, 92
Kiangsu, 228
Kiau-Tshou, port of, 232
Kibi-no-Makibi, the scholar, 49
Kibi-no-Tasa, 24
Kido Takayoshi, 188, 208
Kii, province of, 9, 170, 182
Ki-ja, Chinese prince, 16
Kimmei-Tenno, 29th Emperor,
25,27
Kino Haseo, 60
Ki-no-Oyumi, general under the
21st Emperor, 24
Kin-Tshou, 241, 242
Kino Tsurayuki, 60, 65
Kioto, 51, 61, 62, 73, 85, 102, 103,
106, 109, 113, 116, 126, 130,
132, 135, Mi, 147, 149, 161,
173, 175, 181, 184, 186, 199,
205
Kirino Toshiaki, major-general,
211
Kitamura Kigin, 166
Kitashirakawa - no - miya, prince,
229
Kin-lien-cheng (Kiu-ren-jo), fort-
ress of, 225
Kiusiu, island of, 8, 12, 18, 45,
103, 122, 125, 135, 138, 177
Kiyowara Takehira, the general,
73
Kizuki, village of, 7
Kobayakawa Takakage, 138
Koga Kubo, the, 114, 121
Kofukuji, temple of, 73
Kobun-TennS, 39th Emperor, 43
INDEX
*55
Koganei, Professor, 1
Kogioku - Tenno, (Saimei - Tenno)
35th Emperor, 35, 41, 42
Kogon-Tenno, 97, 98, 103
Ko-gu-ryu or Koma, 16, 17, 18, 24,
25, 41, 42
Kojiki, the, ancient Japanese
Chronicle, 2, 3, 47, 174
Koka, island of, 219
Kokaku-Tenno, 119th Emperor,
172
Koken the Empress, (46th Em-
peror), 47, 48, 49
Koko-Tenno, 58th Emperor, 58
Komio-kogo, wife of Shomu-Tenno
48
Komio-Tenno, Emperor of the
northern dynasty, 103
Ko-Mura Jutaro, 249
Kongobuji, temple of, 53
Konin, 49th Emperor, 47, 51
Konishi Yoshinaga, 138
Kono Moronao, 105
Konoe-Tenno, 76th Emperor, 74
Korea, 2, 11, 16, 18, 21, 24, 25,
41, 42, 45, 91, 124, 125, 137,
138, 139. 156, 169, 208, 218,
219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225,
227, 228, 236, 237, 238, 240,
245, 246, 249, 250
Koreans, the, 2, 18, 21
Korpogurus, the, a race of dwarfs, 2
Kose Kanaoka, the painter, 60
Kotoku-Tenno, 36th Emperor, 39,
4i, 44
Koza, temple of, 72
Kozuke, province of, 97, 121
Kuang-Tscheng-Tse, 249
Kiikai, Buddhist priest, 53, 65
Kumano, temple of, 72
Kumamoto, town of, 210, 211, 212
Kuma-no-Ura, 9
Kumaso, race of, 12, 16
Kurile islands, 218
Kurino, Japanese Ambassador at
St. Petersburg, 238
Kuropatkin, 240, 241, 243
Kusuko, wife of Heijei-Tenno, 52
Kusunoki Masashige, 97, 98, 103,
104, 105
Kusunoki Masatsura, 104, 105
Kwan-tshou, bay of, 233
Lian-tung peninsula, 225, 226, 228,
229, 232, 234
Liau-ho (Rioka), 227
Liau-yang, 240, 242, 243
Liegnitz, 91
Li-Hung-Tschang, 221, 228
M
Maeda Toshiie, 141
Ma-han (Bakan), 17
Makarov, admiral, 239, 240
Mamiya straits, 177
Manchuria, 66, 177, 225, 233, 234,
237, 240, 249
Manchurians, the, 2
Mangkan, King of the Mongols, 91
Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller,
92
Maruyama Okio, the painter, 173
Masatomo, 114, 115
Masuda Tokisada, 162, 163
Matsudaira Katamori, prince of
Aizu, 186, 193, 194, 195, 196,
197
Matsudaira Nobutsuna, 163, 165
Matsudaira Sadanobu, 172, 173
Matsunaga family, the, 130
Matsunaga Hisahide, 119
Matsuo Basho, the song-writer, 166
Mediterranean, the, 245
Mexico (Nova Hispania), 157
Michinoomi - no - Mikoto, general
under the 1st Emperor, 9
Michizane, 59, 60
Mido, temple of, 65
Mikawa, province of, 140
Minamoto, the, 63, 67, 73, 77, 79,
81, 85, 86, 88, 89, 93, 140, 145
Minamoto Tsune-moto, 63
Minamoto Yoritomo, 79, 80, 81,
85, 86 , 87, 88, 188
Minamoto Yoshinaka, 80, 8 1
Minamoto Yoshitomo, 74, 76, 77
Ming, Chinese dynasty of, 124,
159
Mmo, province of, 130
256
INDEX
Mishihase or Makkatsu, 41
Mito, 166, 182, 188
Miya, 169
Miyako, 198
Miyako-no-Yoshika, the scholar, 52
Miyoshi Chokei, 119
Miyoshi family, the, 130
Miyoshi Kiyoyuki, the scholar, 60
Mizuno Tadakuni, 178
Mochiuji, 113, 114
Mommu, 42nd Emperor, 44, 47
Mongolia, 91, 124
Mongolian nations, languages of, 2
Mononobe family, the, 34
Mononobe - no - Arakahi, general
under the Emperor Keitai, 25
Monotobu, the painter, 117
Mori family, the, 122, 130, 133
Mori Motonari, 122
Morinaga, prince, 101, 102
Moriya, son of Mononobe-no-
Okoshi, 28
Motoori Norinaga, 174
Mototsune, 58, 59
Mukden, 243, 245
Murakami-Tenno, 62nd Emperor,
64
Murasaki-Shikibu, 65
Muro Kiiiso, 171
Musashi, province of, 12 1
Mutsu, chief town of the Ainus, 13
Mutsu, province of, 67, 73, 87, 122,
167
Mutsuhito, present Emperor of
Japan, 188, 199
Mutsu Munemitsu, 228, 231
N
Nagasaki, 147, 164, 171, 176, 177,
178, 180, 205, 209, 219
Nagasunehiko, rebel in the reign
of the 1st Emperor, 9
Nagato (Choshu), 184
Nagato, prince of, 186, 187, 188,
198, 193, 194, 195, 202
Nagoya, port of, 138
Nakae Toju, 166
Nakano-oe-Oji, name of 38th
Emperor before his accession,
35, 39> 41. 42
Nakatomi-no-Kamatari, originator
of the fall of the Soga family,
35, 39, 42, 44, 57
Naniwa (Osaka), 9, 28, 45
Naniwa, palace at, 22
Naohito, prince, 170
Nara, 47, 49, 5 1, 93, 147
Narinaga, prince, 101
Nawa Nagatoshi, 97, 98
Nebugatov, rear-admiral, 248
Nichiren-Shonin, Buddhist priest,
94
Nichiren-Shu, Buddhist sect, 94
Nigihayahi-no-Mikoto, relative of
the 1st Emperor, 9
Nihonshoki, or Nihongi, ancient
Japanese Chronicle, 2, 3, 16,
18, 21, 48
Niiagata, 180
Nikko, 147
Ninigi-no-Mikoto, grandson of
Amaterasu-Omikami, 8
Ninnaji-no-miya Yoshiaki, Prince,
195
Nintoku-Tenno, 16th Emperor, 22
Nitta family, the 97
Nitta Yoshishada, 97, 102, 103
Niu-tschwang, 227, 233
Nobuatsu, 165
Nobunaga, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134,
140
Nobuyori, 76
Nogi, general, 242
Norinaga, prince, 101
Noriyori, 88
Nozu, lieutenant - general, 224,
227, 242.
O
Oama, prince, 43
Oda family, the 123, 129, 130, 134
Oda Nobuhide, 129
Oda Nobunaga, 120, 123, 129, 16 1
Odawara, stronghold of the Hojo
family, 135
Ogata Korin, the painter, 167
Ogimachi-Tenno, 106th Emperor,
118, 130
Ogiu Sorai, 171
Oiwa, son of the general, Ki-no-
Oyumi, 24
INDEX
257
Ojin-Tenno, 15th Emperor, 18, 21
Okehazama, battle of, 130
Oki, island of, 97, 98
Okinoshima, 247
Okitomo, 172
Oku, general, 242
Okubo Toshimichi, 188, 208
Okuma Shigenobu, 231
Okuninushi-no-Mikoto, 7
Omi, province of, 13, 131
Omi-no-Mifune, the scholar, 52.
O-Muraji, or Mononobe-no-Okoshi,
27, 28
Omura, 157
Onin years, 113, 120
Ono Harunaga, 145
Ono-no-Takamura, the scholar, 52
O no-Yasumaro, 47, 48
Ono-no-Yoshifuru, 63
O-omi, or Soga-no-Iname, 27, 28
Osaka, port of, 135, 141, 146, 147,
167, 194, 195, 205
Osakabe, prince, 44
Oshikochi Mitsune, the song-writer,
60
Osumi, province of, 12
Ota Dokan, 117
Otomo, 157
Otomo family, the 122
Otomo-no-Kanamura, the chan-
cellor, 24
Otori Keisuke, 196, 197
Ouchi family, the 122, 125
Ouchi Yoshioki, 119
Ouchi Yoshitaka, 122
Owari, or Atsuta, province of, 13,
14, T23, 129
Oyama Iwao, field -marshal, 225,
242, 243
Oyumi Kubo, the, 121
Pacific Ocean, 157, 158
Pak-je or Kudara, 16, 17, 18, 31,
23, 24, 25, 41, 42
Tak-je, King of, 27
Paul V. (Pope), 122
Peking, 91, 220, 233
Perry, admiral, 178, 179, 189
Pfhung-do (Hoto), island of, 223
Philip II. of Spain, 158
Philip III. (of Spain), 122
Phillippines, the, 137, 157
Phon han (Benkan), 17
Phyong-Yang (Heijo), capital of
Chosun, 17, 138, 224
Pi-Asje wo, 241
Port Arthur (Rio-jun-Ko), 225, 229,
232, 233, 239, 241, 242, 243,
244, 245, 249
Portsmouth, Peace of, 249
Portugese, the, 126, 156
Postsan-han (Kan), 17
Prussia, 182
Pyon-chin, 17
Rai Sanyo, the historian, 175
Reizei-Tenno, 63rd Emperor, 64
Richardson, 185
Rihaku, Chinese writer, 49
Ri-Ki, King of Korea, 219
Rinoji-no-miya, Prince, 196
Riiikiu, island of, 205
Riukiu, King of, 156
Riuzoji family, 122
Rokuhara-Tandai, 90
Rome, 158
Roosevelt, Mr., 248
Rosen, 249
Rovjestvensky, admiral, 245, 248
Russia, 91, 176, 179, 182, 228, 229,
232, 234, 236, 237, 238, 243,
244, 248, 249
8
Sadatoki, 96, 97
Saga district, the 209
Sagami, province of, 13, 85, 121,
178
Saga-Tenno, 52nd Emperor, 52
Saghalien, 177, 218, 246, 250
Saich5, Buddhist priest, 53
Saigio, Buddhist priest and poet,
93. 94
Saigo Kirino, 212
Saigo Takamori, general, 188, 208,
209, 210, 211
Saito family, the, 130
Sakai, 147
*s*
INDEX
Saka-noae-no-Tamuramaro, the
general, 51
Samurai, the, 86, oj, 105, 121, 148,
I5i» 153. 154. 170, I73» 182,
184, 201, 204, 205, 207, 208,
209, 210, 211
Sanetomo, 88
San-ho, plain of, 243, 244
Sanuki, province of, 75, 81
Sasebo, port of, 238
Sashiura, village of, 62
Sassa Norimasa, 135
Satsuma, prince of, 201
Satsuma, 126, 170, 185, 186, 187,
188, 194, 195, 202, 208
Schiroyama, 212
Schuschi, 228
Seimei-6, King of Pak-je, 25
Seishonagon, 66
Seiso, Emperor of China, 125
Seiwa-Tenno, 56th Emperor, 58
Sekigahara, plain of, 141
Sendai, town of, 122
Senjimon, the poem, 21
Seonghwan (Sei-kan), 223
Seoul, 138, 220, 222, 223, 224, 239
Sesshu, the painter, 117
Seto, inland sea of, 9, 62
Settsu, province of, 45
Seymour, Sir Edward, 234
Shanghai, 206
Shantung, 225, 226, 232
Shiba family, the no, 113, 129
Shibata Katsuie, 134
Shiga, town of, 42
Shigemori, 79
Shigeuji, 114
Shijonawate, field of, 105
Shikoku, island of, 75, 122, 170
Shimabara, peninsula of, 163
Shimatsu family, the 122
Shimatsu Saburo, 185
Shimatsu Yoshihisa, 135
Shimoda, 179, 180
Shimonoseki (Bakan), Peace of,
228, 236
Shimosa, province of, 62, 63, 114,
121, 196
Shimozuke, province of, 49, 121,
196
Shinano, province of, 13, 80
Shingonshu, the, Buddhist sect, 53,
. 94.
Shinikei, 138
Shinowara Kunimoto, 211, 212
Shinran-Shonin, Buddhist priest,
. 94
Shinsai, 76
Shintoism, 27, 175
Shionoritsuhiko-no-Mikoto, leader
of the army under Sujin-Tenno,
n
Shirakawa, 197
Shirakawa-Tenno, 72nd Emperor,
, 72, 73> 74
Shi-sen, battle of, 139
Shishi-ga-dani, village of, 78
Shitennoji, temple of, 31
Shizugadake, battle of, 134
Shomu, 45th Emperor, 47, 48, 49
Shotoku, son of the 33rd Emperor,
3°> 31 > 34, 35
Shotoku, 48th Emperor, 47
Shugensho, Chinese family, 124
Shugo, no
Shunkan, the priest, 78
Siam, 158
Siberia, 176
Silesia, 91
Sil-la, or Shiraki, state of, II, 16,
17, 24, 41, 42
Sil-la, king of, 25
Skikoku, island of, 135
Sobin, 39
Soga family, the 27, 29, 34, 3$, 36
Sbng-hwan, 224
Soshokun, 138
South America, 158
Soya, straits of, 246
Spain, 158
Spaniards, the, 126, 156, 176
Stark, admiral, 239
Stossel, 240, 241, 243, 244
Sugawara family, the 59
Sugawara Michizane, 65
Sugawara, the scholar, 60
Suiko-Tenno (the Empress), 33rd
Emperor, 3, 25, 30, 47
Suinin-Tenno, nth Emperor, 14
INDEX
259
Sujin-Tenno, 10th Emperor, II, 17
Sumpu, 147
Suo, province of, 126
Suruga, province of, 13, 158
Susa-noo-no-Mikoto, the god, 7
Sushun, the Emperor, 30
Sutoku-Tenno, 75th Emperor, 74
Sutschou, 228
Su-Yung-Fu, 229
Suzaku-Tenno, 6 1st Emperor, 62
Szet-schnan, 228
T
Tabaruzaka, battle of, 211
Tachibanahime, princess, 13
Taidong, the river, 224
Taiho year, 44
Taika reforms, 39, 57, 87
Taira family, the, 63, 67, 73, 76, 77,
78, 79, 80, 81, 86, 89, 93, 129
Taira Kiyomori, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79,
80, 81
Taira Masakado, 62, 63
Taira Sadamori, 63
Tai-Won-Kun, 219, 220
Takahira Kogoro, 249
Takakura-Tenno, 80th Emperor,
78,79
Takamuko-no-Kuromaro, 39
Takamatsu, fortress of, 131, 133
Takamori, 212
Takano Choei, 177
Takeda family, the, 131
Takeda Shingen, 121, 130
Takenoshima, 248
Takeuchi family, the, 27
Takeuchi-no-Sukune, minister of
Jingu-Kogo, 16
Takeuchi Skikibu, 175, 176
Takigawa Katsumasu, 134
Taku, fort of, 234
Takuma Tamenari, the painter, 66
Talien-wan (Dairen), port of, 233,
249
Tamagawa, the river, 167
Taneda, major-general, 210
Tanegashina, island of, 126
Tani Motoki, major-general, 211
Tankei, the carver, 95
Tanuma Okitsugu, 172
Teiseiko, 159
Temmu-Tenno, 40th Emperor, 48
Tendai, the, Buddhist sect, 53, 94
Tenji-Tenno, 38th Emperor, 42, 43,
44, 57
Tenshu, fortress of, 131
Terajima Munenori, 230
Tibetans, language of the, 2
Tien-tschwang-tai (Den-sho-dai),
227
Tientsin, 221, 222, 223, 224
Ting, admiral, 226
Toba-Tenno, 74th Emperor, 74
Todaiji, temple of, 49
Togo, 223
Togo Heihachiro, vice - admiral,
238, 239, 240
Togo Masaji, Rear-Admiral, 246,
247
Togukawa family, the 140, 149,
152, 182
Togukawa Iesato, 196
Tokugawa leyasu, 130, 134, 135,
140, 141, 142, 145, 146, 147,
148, 156, 157, 162, 165
Togukawa Yoshinobu, 182, 188,
194. 195, 196
Toho, Chinese writer, 49
Tokihira, 60
T5kio, 141, 145, 157, 201, 205, 206,
211, 224, 229, 250
Tokiyori, 90
Toku-ri-ji, 242
Toneri, prince, 48
To-no-mine, temple of, 43
* ', Torikaebaya - monogatari, " the
satire, 66
Tosa, 188, 193, 194, 195, 202
Tosa Mitsunaga, the painter, 95
Tosa Mitsuoki, the painter, 167
Tosa, prince of, 199
Toyotomi family, the, 141, 142,
145
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the general,
I3i» 132, 133, 134, 135, 136,
137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 156,
162
Trans-Siberian railway, 232
Tschekiang, 228
Tschemulpo, 219, 220, 223, 239,
240
260
INDEX
Tsching, Manchurian dynasty of,
159
Tschung-King, 228
Tshinampo, 240
Tsuboi, Professor, of Tokio, 2
Tsuchikumo, people of, 10
Tsugaru, straits of, 245
Tsukushi, province of, 17, 45, 67
Tsunayoshi, 165
Tsushima, island of, 66, 156
Tung-shan, island of, 233
Turks, language of the, 2
Uda-Tenno, 59th Emperor, 58, 59
Uesugi family, the 114
Uesugi Kagekatsu, 141, 142
Uesugi Kenshin, 121
Uesugi Noritada, 114
Uesugi Norizane, 113, 114
Ugayafukiaezu-no-Mikoto, father
of the 1st Emperor, 8
Uji family, the, 33
Uji, town of, 65, 66
Uji-no-Wakairatsuko, son of the
15th Emperor, 21, 22
Ujitsuna, 121
Ujiyasu, 121
Ukida Hideie, 138
Ullong, island of, 247
Ulsan, mountain of, 139
Umako, chancellor of the Emperor
Sushun, 30, 34
Umako, son of Soga-no-Iuame, 28
Unebi, mountain of, 10
United States, 178, 180, 1S1, 219,
248
Unkei, the carver, 95
Uraga, 178, 179
Uriu, rear-admiral, 238, 239
Vladivostock, 240, 245, 248
W
Wake-no-Kiyomaro, 49
Wani, 21
Watanabe Kazan, 177
Wei-hai-wei, fortress of, 226, 233
Witte, 249
Xavier, Francesco, 122, 126, 161
Yalu, the river, 225, 227, 240, 241
Yamabe-no-Akahito, the song-
writer, 50
Yamada, town of, 147
Yamada Nagamasa, 158, 159
Yamagata Aritomo, field -marshal,
224, 227
Yamagata Daini, 175
Yamaguchi (or Little Kioto) 122,
125, 126
Yamaguchi, lieutenant - general,
234
Yamaji, lieutenant - general, 225
Yamana Sozen, the general, 112,
113
Yamana Ujikiyo family, the 109
Yamato, province of, 9, 21, J04
Yamatota-kern-no-Mikoto, son of
the 1 2th Emperor, 12, 13, 14
Yamazaki, battle of, 133
Yang-tse-Kiang, 159
Yedo, 145, 147, 148, 156, 157, 167,
170, 173. 175, 176, 180, 184,
185, 195, 196, 201
Yellow Sea, the, 224, 238
Yen-Tschuan, 222
Yi-yu-Song (Rijiosho), 138
Yodo, the river, 167
Yokohama, 206
Yonekichi Miyake, Professor, 3
Yorii, 88
Yorimichi, 65
Yoshifusa, wife of Montoku-Tenno,
56th Emperor, 57
Yoshigumi, 119
Yoshimune, 170, 171, 172, 173
Yoshimasa, 113, 114, 116
Yoshimitsu, 106, 109, 1 10, 125
Yoshimochi, no
Yoshino, village of, 104
Yoshiteru, 119
Yoshitsune, 77, 79. 81, 87
Yozei-Tenno, 57th Emperor, 58
Yuriaku-Tenno, 21st Emperor, 22,
24
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